Theses and Dissertations - Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice

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An analysis of human trafficking in Alabama
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) McKenzie, Daniel H.; Lanier, Mark; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
While awareness of human trafficking has increased in recent years, research suggests that more education is needed for first responders (e.g., law enforcement, fire and rescue, health care professionals, etc.) in order to give them more knowledge so they can better recognize occurrences of the crime and assist victims of human trafficking. Furthermore, previous research contends that data concerning the number of victims trafficked both worldwide and domestically is often exaggerated and lacks a scientific basis. The current research examines the number of human trafficking cases that have been documented in the state of Alabama. The study utilizes a mixed method approach to measure the perception that law enforcement officers in Alabama have regarding the issue of human trafficking, the amount of training received on the topic, and the number of cases investigated during 2014. The findings were then compared to findings from a previous study that examined similar issues in the state of Florida.
Analyzing the attitudes of law students towards sex offenders
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Trull, Valerie Elisabeth; Reid, Lesley Williams; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
A significant amount of research has aimed to determine attitudes towards sex offenders and treatment for sex offenders, especially for those involved in the criminal justice system. Researchers have utilized the Community Attitudes Towards Sex Offenders (CATSO) and Attitudes Towards the Treatment of Sex Offenders (ATTSO) scales to measure attitudes of many populations, including law enforcement, corrections officers, parole boards, as well as general communities. To this point, the attitudes of those most directly involved in the courtroom— lawyers and judges—have not been addressed. As future jurists, law students can provide some insight into these attitudes. This study will attempt to determine the attitudes of a group of law students from The University of Alabama, and see if those attitudes can be changed through education.
Assessing the innocence and victimization of child soldiers
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Brons, Kathryn; Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
To date, the majority stance taken by researchers in the field of criminology has been that child soldiers should be treated as innocent victims of war. While there have been some authors who have examined whether this label should be attached to the child, none have firmly taken the minority side in this debate. International law disregards the criminal acts against humanity committed by a child soldier and instead criminalizes the adults who either abducted the child for military duty or allowed the child to willingly volunteer for the armed services. This thesis proposes that many child soldiers are not innocent victims, but they are instead perpetrators of violence. In doing so, definitions of `innocent' and `victim' are called upon to show how many child soldiers are neither of these things and are able to take advantage of the International Criminal Court because of the ambiguity in international law. Labeling theory is used as the theoretical framework for this thesis. By labeling child soldiers as innocent victims, it has an adverse effect that allows child soldiers to continue committing criminal acts.
Community attitudes toward cyberbullying: the victim's age & sex matter
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) McBride, Brittany; Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study was the first to examine community attitudes of cyberbullying through vignettes, or hypothetical cyberbullying scenarios. This study had four specific aims: (1) to examine whether community attitudes of cyberbullying are biased depending on the victims' sex and age, (2) to examine whether community attitudes of cyberbullying differ depending on the type of cyberbullying incident (e.g., YouTube© video, Facebook© post), (3) to examine whether individuals cognitive dispositions effect their attitudes toward cyberbullying, (4) to examine whether individuals type and frequency of media exposure effects their attitudes toward cyberbullying, (5) to determine whether respondent's thought the cyberbully's First Amendment rights were being violated or not, (6) to examine if the demographics (e.g., sex or being a parent) of the respondent effect their sensitivity levels in each vignette. This study was conducted online using an Internet-based survey, which targeted respondents over the age of 19 located in the United States. Respondents were selected using online social media sites, chat rooms, and discussion forums. A 3 x 4 mixed-subjects design with 12 conditions was used, meaning that the survey included a series of three randomized vignettes and questions regarding community attitudes of the hypothetical scenarios provided. Results suggested that females are in general more sensitive to cyberbullying victims than males. Second, respondents were more sensitive to younger victims of cyberbullying. Third, males were more likely to believe the cyberbully's First Amendment rights had been violated when compared to females. Fourth, parents are overall more sensitive to victims of cyberbullying. Fifth, individuals who have low social values are less sensitive to victims of cyberbullying. Lastly, no relationship was found between media exposure and sensitivity levels. Overall, this study revealed numerous statistically significant findings, but with this type of research there are always limitations, which will be discussed.
Does appearance matter?: the effect of skin tones on trustworthy and innocent appearances
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Birdsong, Conner Key; Johnson, Ida M.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Decades of research show that among first time offenders Blacks receive a harsher punishment in general than Whites, even after controlling for legally relevant and non-relevant factors. Sentencing disparities between Blacks and Whites contain the presence of colorism. Color is an important component of individual appearance and could send attitudes about one’s demeanor, values, remorse, honesty, and even guilt (Burch, 2015). The current research aims to examine the relationship between the skin tone of capital case inmates and perceived levels of trustworthiness and innocent appearances. Photographs of convicted capital case inmates were shown to undergraduate, entry-level criminal justice students to determine whether the skin tones of capital case inmates influence their views of trustworthiness and innocent appearances. These views were obtained by rating the photographs of capital inmates on two scales measuring levels of trustworthiness and innocence. An analysis of variance was conducted to compare mean ratings of trustworthiness and innocence for each skin tone category. The results revealed a significant relationship between skin tone and perceived levels of trustworthiness. Specifically, student raters rated a light skin photograph higher on trustworthiness when a light skin photograph preceded a dark skin photograph. A discussion of these results, policy implications, and limitations are reviewed. Keywords: colorism, appearance, skin tone, trustworthiness, innocence
Double stigma: how jurors perceive mentally ill defendants
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Kortright, Kelly Elizabeth; Kenney, Jennifer; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The media has had a long history of portraying mentally ill individuals as a danger to the community and others, feeding the public imagery, which may contribute to the perceived criminalization of mental illness. While the link between criminality and mental illness has long been acknowledged, it is not yet fully understood. The aim of the current study was to understand how mental health diagnoses and offense type may change the recommended disposition and perceived level of dangerousness of the offender by potential jury members. An online survey was administered to 142 undergraduate students enrolled in two randomly selected introductory courses to criminal justice at The University of Alabama. Participants received one of six experimental vignettes that varied by portrayed mental health diagnosis and portrayed offense. Participants saw a significant difference between no mental health diagnosis and any mental health diagnosis when recommending a disposition and when estimating dangerousness. Participants also saw a significant difference between theft and simple assault when estimating dangerousness. These findings suggest that the label of mentally ill does play a role when recommending a disposition and estimating dangerousness. Implications from the current study include furthering the education of the general public to steer away from the common misconceptions that the mentally ill are inherently dangerous, and how traditional criminal justice sanctions, such as prison, may not be adequately prepared to house and treat mentally ill offenders.
Drug trafficking and gun carrying: a co-occurring phenomenon among urban male youth
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2009) Allen, Andrea Nicole; Lo, Celia C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study examines an often-observed, but rarely studied, phenomenon of drug trafficking and gun carrying behaviors among urban male youth, as much of social science research so far addresses the two behaviors separately. Attention is directed at delineating the social mechanisms, namely individual-level risk factors (poverty, family, and education), that lead youth to adopt code-related beliefs, which increase risks for engaging in drug trafficking and gun carrying. Results from the multivariate data analysis indicate that race and code-related beliefs are significant predictors of participation in co-occurring behaviors. Additionally, the impact of code-related beliefs on participation in co-occurring behaviors was not found to be different for different racial groups as suggested by Anderson. Little support was found for individual-level risk factors, as a whole, impacting participation in co-occurring behaviors. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to the impact of racial status, as a risk factor, and code-related beliefs on participation in co-occurring behaviors by urban male youth.
Epicrim and child sexual abuse: a public health theory for a criminal justice epidemic
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Skvortsova, Tanya; Lanier, Mark; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is increasingly described by government agencies and academic commentators as a public health problem. A range of theories has been put forward to explain different aspects, or perspectives, of child sexual abuse. These include free-standing theories such as implicit theories, rational choice, routine activities and social learning theories. Integrated theories have also been developed in an attempt to explain the individual actions of those engaging in CSA and the social ecology within which it takes place. Epicrim is an emerging criminological theory that seeks to re-conceptualize crime as a public health issue and adoptsf a cross-disciplinary approach that is rooted in public health strategies. Here, epicrim was applied to the issue of CSA to see whether the theory is effective at explaining its commission and consequences across both individual and societal levels. Existing theories were integrated into the resulting epicrimiological model, where appropriate. A number of existing and proposed policies aimed at preventing or addressing CSA were evaluated against the resulting epicriminological model of CSA. Policy reform suggestions were made where deficits were identified.
Exploiting the digital frontier: hacker typology and motivation
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2014) McBrayer, John Charles; Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study combined the hacker taxonomies presented by Loper (2000), Parker (1998), Rege-Patwardhan (2009), and Rogers (1999; 2006; personal communication) and proposed a simplified taxonomy which included: script kiddie, cyberpunk, password cracker, internal, and old guard hacker categories. Each category was identified by its characteristic computer deviant behaviors and analyzed against sex and seven motivational factors (i.e., addiction, curiosity, excitement/entertainment, money, power/status/ego, peer recognition, ideological, and revenge). The study had two specific aims: (1) to explore which motivations were associated with each specific computer deviant behavior, and (2) to determine if more males than females are engaging in computer deviant behavior. The study targeted computer deviants from specific websites, which discussed or promoted computer deviant behavior (e.g., hacking). Using a snowball sampling method, 120 subjects completed an anonymous, self-report questionnaire that included items measuring computer deviance, motivational factors, and demographics. Relationships were identified using zero-order correlation, then a backwards (Wald) binary logistic regression was conducted to determine the predictive ability of motivational factors on the different categories of computer deviancy. None of the computer deviant behavior specific hypotheses were fully supported. The expectation that more males would be computer deviants than females was not fully supported since males were more likely to be script kiddies, cyberpunks, and old guard hackers compared to females. The findings suggested that these computer deviant behaviors overlapped in both motivational factors and the behaviors themselves. The study found that script kiddie, password cracker, and old guard hacker behaviors were all only motivated by addiction. Cyberpunk behavior was found to be motivated by financial, peer recognition, and revenge motivations, and internal computer deviant behavior was found to be related to financial and peer recognition motivations. Overall, the current study suggested that there was significant motivational and behavioral overlap between computer deviant categories, and not all computer deviants were predominately male. The author concluded that using a strict computer hacker taxonomy may not accurately reflect the true nature of computer deviant behavior.
Gender and sentencing outcomes: does region matter?
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2010) Holland, Melanie Marie; Prohaska, Ariane; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Previous research has acknowledged that a relationship exists between gender and sentencing outcomes. However, a gap exists in research regarding how regional differences affect this relationship. Some research suggests that gender ideologies differ by region within the United States. This predicted relationship can be explained using the paternalism theory, which states that women receive more leniency than men because they are perceived as needing more protection as a result of a patriarchal society. This study incorporates data from the 2008 Monitoring of Federal Criminal Sentences collected by the United States Sentencing Commission to analyze the relationship between region, gender, and sentence outcomes using the theoretical perspective of paternalism. This study found that women received leniency throughout the criminal justice system. The Deep South did exhibit more conservative values resulting in harsher sentencing for most of the stages. However, women from the Deep South did not appear to receive any more leniency than women not from the Deep South.
Gender differences in prison program involvement and inmate misconduct
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Rude, Amanda Taylor; Johnson, Ida M.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The majority of current literature surrounding prison program involvement and inmate behavior focuses on recidivism, this study adds to the current literature by exploring the impact that involvement in different types of programs have on inmate misconduct. The limited research on the relationship between types of programs (e.g. educational, parenting, and religious programs) and inmate misconduct has yielded inconsistent findings and a majority of them were conducted on samples of male inmates only. This study aims to fill the gap in the existing literature centered on prison program involvement and inmate misconduct by utilizing samples of both male and female inmates (housed in federal and state prisons) to assess the gender differences in relation to program involvement and inmate misconduct. The Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities 2004 data were used to generate a sample of approximately 13,000 male and 3,500 female inmates. The results of multiple logistic regressions indicate that prison programs do significantly impact inmate misconduct; however, the direction of impact differs according to specific programs and gender.
Guilty or not guilty - trust, affect, & cognition in mock juror decision making
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Young, Akeisha; Williams, Jimmy John; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Legitimacy, more specifically, trust in legal authorities and procedural fairness, has garnered a great deal of significance in the legal system and society. The current study assessed the construct dimensionality of trust in legal authorities and procedural fairness to serve as the initial steps for the development of a brief measure of trust in legal authorities and procedural fairness. Moreover, this study investigated whether the relationship between trust in legal authorities, procedural fairness, need for affect (NFA), need for cognition (NFC), need for cognitive closure (NFCS), and individual demographic characteristics predict juror outcome decisions. Participants were given individual difference measures (i.e., NFA, NFC, NFCS), the trust in legal authorities measure, a case scenario, juror outcome decision questionnaire, and demographic questionnaire. A principal component analysis was conducted with 42 items using an oblique rotation (promax). Five statistically significant components, as determined through parallel analysis, explained 53.29% of the variance in trust in legal authorities and procedural fairness. This inductive approach indicated that trust in legal authorities and procedural fairness was comprised of five dimensions: trust in police, institutional trust in courts, procedural fairness- voice, motive-based trust in courts, and procedural fairness – neutrality. Moreover, a binary logistic regression indicated that trust in police and procedural fairness – voice significantly predicted juror outcome decisions. A discussion of these results along with the limitations of this study and future research is discussed.
Knowledge and attitudes toward HIV/AIDS and HIV law among probationers and parolees in Alabama
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Barber, Brad Wayne; Lichtenstein, Bronwen; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) epidemic recently moved into its fourth decade in the U.S. In an attempt to combat this epidemic, lawmakers have implemented HIV criminalization laws, prevention programs, and treatment options in order to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS. The number of prosecutions for violating HIV disclosure laws and the number of states implementing these laws continue to increase. However, the public health community is concerned that HIV disclosure laws do not reduce HIV transmission. This thesis seeks to examine the effects of HIV criminalization on the HIV testing and treatment by examining HIV knowledge and attitudes among probationers and parolees in Alabama. A self- administered 32 item survey was administered to 200 probationers and parolees in the Birmingham Probation and Parole Office for this purpose. The study found that (1) probationers and parolees are quite knowledgeable about HIV despite their lack of access to HIV prevention programs, (2) probationers and parolees who attend HIV prevention classes are more likely to perceive themselves as being at risk for contracting HIV compared to those who did not attend HIV prevention classes, and (3) HIV disclosure laws are perceived to be a barrier to HIV testing. These results suggest that probationers and parolees would benefit from HIV prevention classes, and that they are skeptical about the benefits of HIV laws to reduce transmission.
Law enforcement on social network sites: a course assessment
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2014) Martin, Rita Allyse; Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study was a pilot study intended to add to the growing literature on the use of social network sites (SNS) in investigations by law enforcement (LE) personnel. The study focused exclusively on graduates of the National Computer Forensic Institute's (NCFI) Online Social Networking (OSN) course. The study consisted of an Internet-based survey instructing respondents to evaluate their understanding of two items: (1) learning outcomes presented in the course and (2) their investigative practices since completing the course. Forty-two respondents completed the survey. The findings indicated the course is aiding law enforcement in learning and adopting SNS equipped techniques, but there is some room for improvement. Specifically, respondents displayed a lack of understanding on how to use some software programs such as FastStone Capture and On The Fly Encryption (OTFE), both important tools for investigation, apprehension, and legal proceedings. The findings emphasize the continued popularity of using SNS in investigations. Further implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are presented.
A Linguistic Analysis of Mass Shooter Journals, Diaries, Correspondence, and Manifestos
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2020) Duong, Hillary; Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Mass shootings often result in panic and calls for increased public safety. Past research has focused on the motives and ambitions of the shooters in hopes of determining their rationale for prevention, while other studies have looked to create a consistent mass shooter profile using artifacts such as suicide notes, medical history, and/or testimonies from the shooters’ friends and family. Written communications by mass shooters (suicide notes, manifestos, diaries, journals, and letters) are a pivotal resource because they allow researchers to investigate the shooters’ motives from their point of view while also providing data for analysis. This study looked to examine the written communications of mass shooters through linguistic analysis to answer the following research questions. First, what are some of the common themes found in the written communications of mass shooters. Second, for each of the common themes found, do mass shooters who expressed that theme differ from those who did not with regards to select linguistic dimensions? I identified the writing themes in each writing sample, then quantitatively assessed linguistic word categories using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) tool for content analysis. Using an independent samples t test, I found mass shooters who expressed suicidal desires were less likely to use words referencing the past than mass shooters who did not express suicidal desires. This study looked to contribute to the body of literature by applying the writing themes found in earlier studies to the written communications of strictly mass shooters.
The linguistics of terror: a content analysis of suicide notes and martyr manifestos
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2016) Smith, Chelsea H.; Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Despite growing interest in the motivations and psychological profiles of suicide attackers, few empirical studies have examined their personal writings and recordings. The present study seeks to uncover linguistic trends in the manifestos, suicide notes, and recorded speeches of suicide attackers. Using the content analysis software, Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count, the author seeks to uncover patterns within these documents and establish identifying trends across geography, attack type, and/or group affiliation. Given the framework provided by Institutional Anomie Theory, linguistic trends are expected to arise in relation to these factors and variations in societal anomie. This study also aims to add to previous literature regarding attacker attitudes and incentives more broadly using aggregated sample data.
Prison dog training programs linked to positive prison social climate
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2021) McNeil, Erin Terese; Dolliver, Matthew J.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
While dog training programs have spread into prisons across the United States and have received substantial attention in both media and qualitative research, few studies have looked to quantify their effects on the prison environment. Using available outcome studies, the present study assessed the relationship between participation in a dog training program and prison social climate through a quantitative meta-analysis (N=9). The meta-analysis includes studies relating to two of the three elements of prison social climate as defined by Ross et al. (2008) in their factor pattern analysis but excludes the third element, environmental quality of life, due to an absence of research into those outcomes. The results demonstrated that a small to moderate effect size exists in the relationship between participation in a dog training program and a more positive prison social climate (g=0.204, SE=0.068, 95% CI= [0.005, 0.069]). While the results are promising, future research is needed to determine whether the relationship is causal or merely correlational.
Prison sex: is TV getting it right or not?
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Storey, Epiphany; Daquin, Jane C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Although prison victimization – specifically sexual victimization – is a taboo subject, it is receiving more national attention than in the past. Despite the increased attention there is still limited research examining public perceptions of prison sexual victimization. The focus of this study is to examine media depictions of prison sexual victimization. Specifically, the study examines whether the depictions of victimization in the media vary based on gender and the media platform on which the television show appears. This research sheds light on the accuracy of media depictions as it relates to the scholarly literature as well as examines whether federal standards for broadcast influence media representations. A content analysis was conducted using three television shows: Prison Break, Orange is the New Black, and Oz. The current study found that there are gender differences in number of depictions of prison sexual victimization as well as the nature of those depictions. The findings also revealed that shows that are not subject to federal regulations display many more representations of sexual victimization than shows under federal guidelines. Lastly, the study found that the media more accurately depicts perpetrators of prison sexual victimization than victims of such acts
Quantifying risk for sexual assault in prisons
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2010) Pyle, Benjamin Schultz; Forde, David R.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Traditional studies of sexual assault in the prison system have focused upon identifying those inmates most likely to perpetrate the offence. However, little research has been conducted upon better identification of those inmates most at risk for sexual assault victimization. The purpose of this study was to analyze an existing dataset in order to evaluate if risk of sexual assault in prison could be quantified through qualitative data. Using secondary qualitative data of 409 males in 30 institutions in 10 states, theoretical risk-assessment indices were created based upon a review of the relevant literature. Reliability was then assessed of the constructed indices, and was followed by Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA) to further construct reliable and valid risk-assessment indices. Results indicated that the identified variables could be used for quantification of risk assessment. By extracting quantifiable risk assessment from qualitative data, further insight was gleaned as how to more effectively construct risk assessment instruments to more accurately measure sexual assault in prisons.
Rape myth acceptance in the Deep South
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Rocker, Dixie; Prohaska, Ariane; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study explores the relationship between rape myth acceptance and masculinity in the Deep South. Rape myth acceptance has been studied in great detail, with many researchers asserting that the greatest predictor for rape myth acceptance is gender. However, no previous research has examined how southern masculinity is related to rape myth acceptance. In this study, I analyzed the relationships between masculinity and rape myth acceptance in the South using the updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (IRMA), which measures belief systems that endorse a culture of sexual violence (Payne, Lonsway, & Fitzgerald, 1999; McMahon & Farmer, 2011) and the Conformity to Masculinity Norms Inventory (CMNI), which measures men’s conformity to masculine norms (Burns & Mahalik, 2008), controlling for all relevant variables. Results from this study do not support a relationship between masculinity, rape myth acceptance, and the Deep South. The current study contends that future research needs to develop a specific and comprehensive measure of southern masculinity that captures what it truly means to be a man from the Deep South.

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