Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice

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An analysis of human trafficking in Alabama
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) McKenzie, Daniel H.; Lanier, Mark; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
While awareness of human trafficking has increased in recent years, research suggests that more education is needed for first responders (e.g., law enforcement, fire and rescue, health care professionals, etc.) in order to give them more knowledge so they can better recognize occurrences of the crime and assist victims of human trafficking. Furthermore, previous research contends that data concerning the number of victims trafficked both worldwide and domestically is often exaggerated and lacks a scientific basis. The current research examines the number of human trafficking cases that have been documented in the state of Alabama. The study utilizes a mixed method approach to measure the perception that law enforcement officers in Alabama have regarding the issue of human trafficking, the amount of training received on the topic, and the number of cases investigated during 2014. The findings were then compared to findings from a previous study that examined similar issues in the state of Florida.
An Analysis of Sexual Assault in the U.S. Military, 2004-2009
(2012-09-19) Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
From 2004 to 2009, U.S. military reports of sexual assault increased by 90%. Whether this reflects a real increase in sexual assaults, or just an increase in reporting, the Department of Defense has committed to reducing the prevalence of these brutal crimes. In order to better understand the problem of sexual assault and how it can be addressed, it is important to put this criminal behavior in its proper context. Previous research has identified several key reasons why military personnel are more likely to commit sexual assault during periods of war than they are in peacetime, including heightened (1) desires for power, (2) desires for sexual fulfillment, and (3) beliefs that there will be no consequences. This paper reviews this literature and presents initial evidence that these same factors may be contributing to the U.S. military’s current problem with sexual assault. Preliminary findings suggest that in the post 9/11 world, service members have increasingly struggled with compensatory desires for power, sexual frustrations abroad, and overly permissive environments where swift and serious punishments for bad behavior are far too rare.
Analyzing the attitudes of law students towards sex offenders
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Trull, Valerie Elisabeth; Reid, Lesley Williams; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
A significant amount of research has aimed to determine attitudes towards sex offenders and treatment for sex offenders, especially for those involved in the criminal justice system. Researchers have utilized the Community Attitudes Towards Sex Offenders (CATSO) and Attitudes Towards the Treatment of Sex Offenders (ATTSO) scales to measure attitudes of many populations, including law enforcement, corrections officers, parole boards, as well as general communities. To this point, the attitudes of those most directly involved in the courtroom— lawyers and judges—have not been addressed. As future jurists, law students can provide some insight into these attitudes. This study will attempt to determine the attitudes of a group of law students from The University of Alabama, and see if those attitudes can be changed through education.
Are the Deadliest Mass Shootings Preventable? An Assessment of Leakage, Information Reported to Law Enforcement, and Firearms Acquisition Prior to Attacks in the United States
(Sage, 2019) Lankford, Adam; Adkins, Krista Grace; Madfis, Eric; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Washington; University of Washington Tacoma
This study examined the 15 deadliest public mass shootings in the United States from March 1998 to February 2018 to assess (a) leakage of violent thoughts/intent, (b) leakage of specific interest in mass killing, (c) concerning behaviors reported to law enforcement, (d) concerning interest in homicide reported to law enforcement, and (e) firearms acquisition. We then compared our findings on the deadliest public mass shooters with the Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) findings on active shooters in general. Overall, the results suggest that most incidents were indeed preventable based on information known about offenders in advance, and that the deadliest mass shooters exhibited more warning signs and were more often reported to law enforcement than other active shooters. Future prevention efforts should aim to educate, encourage, and pressure the public to report warning signs to law enforcement, educate and train law enforcement so that they can more effectively investigate potential threats, and limit firearms access for people who have admitted having homicidal or suicidal thoughts or being interested in committing a mass shooting. These relatively straightforward steps could significantly reduce the prevalence of future attacks.
Assessing findings from the fast track study Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group
(Springer, 2013) Conduct Problems Prevention Res; Bierman, Karen L.; Coie, John D.; Dodge, Kenneth A.; Greenberg, Mark T.; Lochman, John E.; McMahon, Robert J.; Pinderhughes, Ellen E.; Pennsylvania State University; Pennsylvania State University - University Park; Duke University; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Washington; University of Washington Seattle
The aim of this paper is to respond to the Commentary, "Reassessing Findings from the Fast Track Study: Problems of Methods and Analysis" provided by E. Michael Foster (Foster, this issue) to our article "Fast Track Intervention Effects on Youth Arrests and Delinquency" (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group 2010, Journal of Experimental Criminology, 6, 131-157). Our response begins with a description of the mission and goals of the Fast Track project, and how they guided the original design of the study and continue to inform outcome analyses. Then, we respond to the Commentary's five points in the order they were raised. We agree with the Commentary that efforts to prevent crime and delinquency are of high public health significance because the costs of crime and delinquency to society are indeed enormous. We believe that rigorous, careful intervention research is needed to accumulate evidence that informs prevention programs and activities. We have appreciated the opportunity to respond to the Commentary and to clarify the procedures and results that we presented in our paper on Fast Track effects on youth arrests and delinquency. Our response has clarified the framework for the number of statistical tests made, has reiterated the randomization process, has supported our tests for site-by-intervention effects, has provided our rationale for assuming missing at random, and has clarified that the incarceration variable was not included as a covariate in the hazard analyses. We stand by our conclusion that random assignment to Fast Track had a positive impact in preventing juvenile arrests, and we echo our additional caveat that it will be essential to determine whether intervention produces any longer-term effects on adult arrests as the sample transitions into young adulthood. We also appreciate the opportunity for open scientific debate on the values and risks associated with multiple analyses in long-term prevention program designs such as Fast Track. We believe that, once collected, completed longitudinal intervention datasets should be fully used to understand the impact, process, strengths, and weaknesses of the intervention approach. We agree with the Commentary that efforts to prevent crime and delinquency are of high public health significance because the costs of crime and delinquency to society are indeed enormous. As a result, we argue that it is important to balance the need to maintain awareness and caution regarding potential risks in the design or approach that may confound interpretation of findings, in the manner raised by the Commentator, with the need for extended analyses of the available data so we can better understand over time how antisocial behavior and violence can be effectively reduced.
Assessing the innocence and victimization of child soldiers
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Brons, Kathryn; Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
To date, the majority stance taken by researchers in the field of criminology has been that child soldiers should be treated as innocent victims of war. While there have been some authors who have examined whether this label should be attached to the child, none have firmly taken the minority side in this debate. International law disregards the criminal acts against humanity committed by a child soldier and instead criminalizes the adults who either abducted the child for military duty or allowed the child to willingly volunteer for the armed services. This thesis proposes that many child soldiers are not innocent victims, but they are instead perpetrators of violence. In doing so, definitions of `innocent' and `victim' are called upon to show how many child soldiers are neither of these things and are able to take advantage of the International Criminal Court because of the ambiguity in international law. Labeling theory is used as the theoretical framework for this thesis. By labeling child soldiers as innocent victims, it has an adverse effect that allows child soldiers to continue committing criminal acts.
Book Review: The fear of too much justice: Race, poverty, and the persistence of inequality in the criminal courts by Bright, S. B., & Kwak, J.
(Sage Journals, 2024-02-28) Babalola, Abiodun; Salman, Abdulmalik
This review is based on the work of Stephen Bright and James Kwak titled The Fear of Too Much Justice: Race, Poverty, and the Persistence of Inequality in the Criminal Courts which was published by the New Press in 2023. The book contains 368 pages with nine chapters, each of which focuses on a different aspect of the criminal justice system in the United States, acknowledgements, notes, an index, and a foreword written by Bryan Stevenson, a renowned civil rights lawyer and activist in the United States. It aims to shed light on the flaws and injustices within the American criminal justice system, especially concerning issues such as unfair trials, racial discrimination, inadequate legal representation, intense legal proceedings, lengthy working hours, and the profit motive in the judicial system. It also addresses the paucity of funds in defense representation, and the failure of state and local governments to make adequate provisions for funding the legal defense of poor individuals.
Characteristics of Drug Vendors on the Tor Network: A Cryptomarket Comparison
(Taylor & Francis, 2016-05-02) Dolliver, Diana S.; Kenney, Jennifer L.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Past research on drug-related vendors on Tor marketplaces indicate that sellers are motivated by the greater anonymity afforded by the Tor Network. Limited research has even posited that some drug-related vendors on cryptomarkets sell to other dealers, adding another dimension to existing literature that highlights the retail nature (dealer-to-customer transactions) of these Tor-based drug markets. Yet these past studies have been largely qualitative in nature. This study conducted a quantitative analysis of vendor accounts on Evolution and Agora to determine characteristics predictive of vendors advertising controlled substances, and to determine whether any statistically significant differences among drug vendor characteristics existed between the two sites.
Community attitudes toward cyberbullying: the victim's age & sex matter
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) McBride, Brittany; Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study was the first to examine community attitudes of cyberbullying through vignettes, or hypothetical cyberbullying scenarios. This study had four specific aims: (1) to examine whether community attitudes of cyberbullying are biased depending on the victims' sex and age, (2) to examine whether community attitudes of cyberbullying differ depending on the type of cyberbullying incident (e.g., YouTube© video, Facebook© post), (3) to examine whether individuals cognitive dispositions effect their attitudes toward cyberbullying, (4) to examine whether individuals type and frequency of media exposure effects their attitudes toward cyberbullying, (5) to determine whether respondent's thought the cyberbully's First Amendment rights were being violated or not, (6) to examine if the demographics (e.g., sex or being a parent) of the respondent effect their sensitivity levels in each vignette. This study was conducted online using an Internet-based survey, which targeted respondents over the age of 19 located in the United States. Respondents were selected using online social media sites, chat rooms, and discussion forums. A 3 x 4 mixed-subjects design with 12 conditions was used, meaning that the survey included a series of three randomized vignettes and questions regarding community attitudes of the hypothetical scenarios provided. Results suggested that females are in general more sensitive to cyberbullying victims than males. Second, respondents were more sensitive to younger victims of cyberbullying. Third, males were more likely to believe the cyberbully's First Amendment rights had been violated when compared to females. Fourth, parents are overall more sensitive to victims of cyberbullying. Fifth, individuals who have low social values are less sensitive to victims of cyberbullying. Lastly, no relationship was found between media exposure and sensitivity levels. Overall, this study revealed numerous statistically significant findings, but with this type of research there are always limitations, which will be discussed.
A Comparative Analysis of Suicide Terrorists and Rampage, Workplace, and School Shooters in the United States From 1990 to 2010
(Sage, 2013) Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study presents results from the first combined quantitative assessment and comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters who attempt suicide. Findings suggest that in the United States from 1990 to 2010, the differences between these offenders (N = 81) were largely superficial. Prior to their attacks, they struggled with many of the same personal problems, including social marginalization, family problems, work or school problems, and precipitating crisis events. Ultimately, patterns among all four types of offenders can assist those developing security policy, conducting threat assessments, and attempting to intervene in the lives of at-risk individuals.
Criminogenic Assymetries in Cyberspace: A Comparative Analysis of Two Tor Marketplaces
(2015-11) Dolliver, Diana S.; Love, Katherine L.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Cyberspace presents a unique medium in which criminogenic asymmetries propagate, fueled by globalization processes that contribute to various forms of transnational criminality. The cyber domain challenges traditional criminological concepts related to the connection of ‘space’ and ‘time’, allowing offenders and victims to virtually interact despite their geographical locales. Further, structural discrepancies differentially impact cybercrime rates, as connectivity to the Internet remains restricted or inaccessible in many countries. This study conducted a descriptive assessment of criminality on two marketplaces housed on the Tor Network within the broader context of these cyber-structural discrepancies and asymmetries. Data were collected from Evolution and Silk Road 2 during August and September 2014 using webcrawling software. This study found illegal or criminally concerning items to be abundant on Evolution and modest on Silk Road 2, largely sold from a core group of culturally Western countries. Yet, an abundance of other countries were found to engage differentially in specific markets, though in smaller percentages.
CULTURAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ADAPTATION AND CHANGE IN EUROPE: A TEST OF INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE THEORY USING TIME SERIES MODELLING OF HOMICIDE DATA
(Oxford University Press, 2015-07) Dolliver, Diana S.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study examined whether geographic differences in intentional homicide rates in Europe were a function of societies that exhibit Anomic cultural tendencies and an institutional imbalance, as guided by Institutional Anomie Theory. This research is temporally sensitive, taking into account these differences over a 15-year time period. Additionally, separate operations of the theory within developed and transitioning countries were tested, and various cultural-institutional configurations were uncovered that led to increases or decreases in homicide rates. While still restricted by a lack of guidance from Messner and Rosenfeld and inconsistency in past research on how to operationalize key concepts of Institutional Anomie Theory, this study significantly contributes to the literature by assessing core theoretical questions of the theory while employing appropriate measurement strategies.
Do the media unintentionally make mass killers into celebrities? An assessment of free advertising and earned media value
(Routledge, 2018) Lankford, Adam; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
In recent years, some critics have suggested that the media make mass killers into celebrities by giving them too much attention. However, whether the media coverage these offenders receive actually approaches the amounts given to celebrities has never been tested. This study compared perpetrators of seven mass killings during 2013-2017 with more than 600 celebrities over the same time period. Findings indicate that the mass killers received approximately $75 million in media coverage value, and that for extended periods following their attacks they received more coverage than professional athletes and only slightly less than television and film stars. In addition, during their attack months, some mass killers received more highly valued coverage than some of the most famous American celebrities, including Kim Kardashian, Brad Pitt, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, and Jennifer Aniston. Finally, most mass killers received more coverage from newspapers and broadcast/cable news than the public interest they generated through online searches and Twitter seems to warrant. Unfortunately, this media attention constitutes free advertising for mass killers that may increase the likelihood of copycats.
Does appearance matter?: the effect of skin tones on trustworthy and innocent appearances
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Birdsong, Conner Key; Johnson, Ida M.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Decades of research show that among first time offenders Blacks receive a harsher punishment in general than Whites, even after controlling for legally relevant and non-relevant factors. Sentencing disparities between Blacks and Whites contain the presence of colorism. Color is an important component of individual appearance and could send attitudes about one’s demeanor, values, remorse, honesty, and even guilt (Burch, 2015). The current research aims to examine the relationship between the skin tone of capital case inmates and perceived levels of trustworthiness and innocent appearances. Photographs of convicted capital case inmates were shown to undergraduate, entry-level criminal justice students to determine whether the skin tones of capital case inmates influence their views of trustworthiness and innocent appearances. These views were obtained by rating the photographs of capital inmates on two scales measuring levels of trustworthiness and innocence. An analysis of variance was conducted to compare mean ratings of trustworthiness and innocence for each skin tone category. The results revealed a significant relationship between skin tone and perceived levels of trustworthiness. Specifically, student raters rated a light skin photograph higher on trustworthiness when a light skin photograph preceded a dark skin photograph. A discussion of these results, policy implications, and limitations are reviewed. Keywords: colorism, appearance, skin tone, trustworthiness, innocence
Double stigma: how jurors perceive mentally ill defendants
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Kortright, Kelly Elizabeth; Kenney, Jennifer; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The media has had a long history of portraying mentally ill individuals as a danger to the community and others, feeding the public imagery, which may contribute to the perceived criminalization of mental illness. While the link between criminality and mental illness has long been acknowledged, it is not yet fully understood. The aim of the current study was to understand how mental health diagnoses and offense type may change the recommended disposition and perceived level of dangerousness of the offender by potential jury members. An online survey was administered to 142 undergraduate students enrolled in two randomly selected introductory courses to criminal justice at The University of Alabama. Participants received one of six experimental vignettes that varied by portrayed mental health diagnosis and portrayed offense. Participants saw a significant difference between no mental health diagnosis and any mental health diagnosis when recommending a disposition and when estimating dangerousness. Participants also saw a significant difference between theft and simple assault when estimating dangerousness. These findings suggest that the label of mentally ill does play a role when recommending a disposition and estimating dangerousness. Implications from the current study include furthering the education of the general public to steer away from the common misconceptions that the mentally ill are inherently dangerous, and how traditional criminal justice sanctions, such as prison, may not be adequately prepared to house and treat mentally ill offenders.
Drug trafficking and gun carrying: a co-occurring phenomenon among urban male youth
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2009) Allen, Andrea Nicole; Lo, Celia C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study examines an often-observed, but rarely studied, phenomenon of drug trafficking and gun carrying behaviors among urban male youth, as much of social science research so far addresses the two behaviors separately. Attention is directed at delineating the social mechanisms, namely individual-level risk factors (poverty, family, and education), that lead youth to adopt code-related beliefs, which increase risks for engaging in drug trafficking and gun carrying. Results from the multivariate data analysis indicate that race and code-related beliefs are significant predictors of participation in co-occurring behaviors. Additionally, the impact of code-related beliefs on participation in co-occurring behaviors was not found to be different for different racial groups as suggested by Anderson. Little support was found for individual-level risk factors, as a whole, impacting participation in co-occurring behaviors. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to the impact of racial status, as a risk factor, and code-related beliefs on participation in co-occurring behaviors by urban male youth.
Epicrim and child sexual abuse: a public health theory for a criminal justice epidemic
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Skvortsova, Tanya; Lanier, Mark; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is increasingly described by government agencies and academic commentators as a public health problem. A range of theories has been put forward to explain different aspects, or perspectives, of child sexual abuse. These include free-standing theories such as implicit theories, rational choice, routine activities and social learning theories. Integrated theories have also been developed in an attempt to explain the individual actions of those engaging in CSA and the social ecology within which it takes place. Epicrim is an emerging criminological theory that seeks to re-conceptualize crime as a public health issue and adoptsf a cross-disciplinary approach that is rooted in public health strategies. Here, epicrim was applied to the issue of CSA to see whether the theory is effective at explaining its commission and consequences across both individual and societal levels. Existing theories were integrated into the resulting epicrimiological model, where appropriate. A number of existing and proposed policies aimed at preventing or addressing CSA were evaluated against the resulting epicriminological model of CSA. Policy reform suggestions were made where deficits were identified.
An Epidemiological Analysis of Public Mass Shooters and Active Shooters: Quantifying Key Differences Between Perpetrators and the General Population, Homicide Offenders, and People who Die by Suicide
(2021) Lankford, Adam; Silver, J.; Sox, J.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study compared public mass shooters (n = 171) and active shooters (n = 63) in the United States to the general population, homicide offenders, and people who die by suicide. Comparisons with the general population are the foundation of epidemiological research, and comparisons with homicide offenders and people who die by suicide are helpful because public mass shooters and active shooters always intend to kill and often take their own lives. Findings indicate that public mass shooters were more often male, unmarried, and unemployed than the average American. Active shooters were not significantly different from the general population based on prior felony convictions or pre-existing firearm ownership. Public mass shooters and active shooters appeared more like people who die by suicide than homicide offenders, given their high frequency of premeditation, acting alone, suicidal ideation, and unnatural death. Overall, this suggests that felony histories and firearm ownership may have limited utility for threat assessment, but several suicide prevention strategies might help reduce the prevalence of these attacks.
Exploiting the digital frontier: hacker typology and motivation
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2014) McBrayer, John Charles; Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The current study combined the hacker taxonomies presented by Loper (2000), Parker (1998), Rege-Patwardhan (2009), and Rogers (1999; 2006; personal communication) and proposed a simplified taxonomy which included: script kiddie, cyberpunk, password cracker, internal, and old guard hacker categories. Each category was identified by its characteristic computer deviant behaviors and analyzed against sex and seven motivational factors (i.e., addiction, curiosity, excitement/entertainment, money, power/status/ego, peer recognition, ideological, and revenge). The study had two specific aims: (1) to explore which motivations were associated with each specific computer deviant behavior, and (2) to determine if more males than females are engaging in computer deviant behavior. The study targeted computer deviants from specific websites, which discussed or promoted computer deviant behavior (e.g., hacking). Using a snowball sampling method, 120 subjects completed an anonymous, self-report questionnaire that included items measuring computer deviance, motivational factors, and demographics. Relationships were identified using zero-order correlation, then a backwards (Wald) binary logistic regression was conducted to determine the predictive ability of motivational factors on the different categories of computer deviancy. None of the computer deviant behavior specific hypotheses were fully supported. The expectation that more males would be computer deviants than females was not fully supported since males were more likely to be script kiddies, cyberpunks, and old guard hackers compared to females. The findings suggested that these computer deviant behaviors overlapped in both motivational factors and the behaviors themselves. The study found that script kiddie, password cracker, and old guard hacker behaviors were all only motivated by addiction. Cyberpunk behavior was found to be motivated by financial, peer recognition, and revenge motivations, and internal computer deviant behavior was found to be related to financial and peer recognition motivations. Overall, the current study suggested that there was significant motivational and behavioral overlap between computer deviant categories, and not all computer deviants were predominately male. The author concluded that using a strict computer hacker taxonomy may not accurately reflect the true nature of computer deviant behavior.
Factors to consider in evaluating the appropriateness of restraints during forensic evaluations
(Routledge, 2018) Rock, Rachel C.; Shealy, Clayton; Sellbom, Martin; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Otago
Forensic examiners frequently conduct evaluations with individuals who may be regarded as dangerous. To manage this situation, forensic examiners may prefer examinees to wear restraints. Available literature indicates that the use of restraints may be both physically and psychologically detrimental and thus possibly both reduces the yield and limits the utility of psychological test data. Although there is a lack of research addressing this concern, one must use the available information to inform the decision on utilization of restraints during forensic evaluations. In addition, professional ethics, test standards and norms, the reported adverse effects of restraints on both psychiatric patients and inmates, and the concept of forced medication are reviewed to help assess the appropriateness of restraints during forensic evaluations. This analysis provides forensic examiners with insight and recommendations to determine if the use of restraints is best practice during forensic evaluations, particularly within the United States.

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