Theses and Dissertations - Department of Special Education & Multiple Abilities

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A Comparison of Parents' and Teachers' Assessments of Trainable Mentally Retarded Students
(University of Alabama Libraries, 1976) Geiger, William Lee; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The purpose of this study is twofold: (1) to investigate the relationships and the differences among mothers', fathers', and teachers' assessments of TMR children, and (2) to attempt to identify demographic variables which are significantly related to differences between parents' and teachers' and between mothers' and fathers' assessments of TMR children.
Using technology in gifted and talented education classrooms: the teachers' perspective
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Zimlich, Susan Lee; Gregg, Madeleine; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
New technologies emerge frequently. Administrators and teachers have to decide which technologies are worthwhile investments of both limited funds and instructional time. Standards from the Partnership for 21st Century Skills and the International Society for Technology in Education encourage educators to teach skills that will help students adapt in the changing working environment of the future. These skills resemble the National Association for Gifted Children's program and teacher preparation standards. Qualitative research was conducted to determine if teachers of the gifted and talented use technology to provide differentiated instruction and to promote student learning of 21st century skills. A multi-case phenomenological study examined how teachers of the gifted and talented use and shape technology experiences with students, and the extent to which they differentiate technology lessons with respect to autonomy, complexity, instruction in technology, and ability level.
Effects of one special school on gifted and high ability students' project quality, academic engagement, and investment in academic learning
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Coleman, April Newman; Newman, Jane L.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Renaissance Academy (RA), one recently developed full-time special program for students (Grades 6-8) interested in the arts, sciences, and technology, as compared to a traditional gifted/advanced program. Subjects included 226 students and 10 teachers in both programs. A mixed methods design was employed to answer three research questions regarding student outcomes in project quality, academic engagement, and investment in academic learning. Student products were assessed by external raters using the Student Product Assessment Form (Reis, 1981). To evaluate academic engagement, class observations were conducted using the William and Mary Classroom Observation Scales-Revised (VanTassel-Baska, Bracken, & Drummond, 2003). Students completed the My Class Activities survey (Gentry & Gable, 2001) to report perceptions toward academic interest, challenge, choice, and enjoyment. Qualitative measures included observations and interviews with students and teachers. Findings indicated that experimental group students had significantly higher project quality scores than comparison group students as measured by independent t tests, and influential factors included choice, depth and complexity, and audience authenticity. Descriptive statistics revealed that experimental group students displayed engagement behaviors more frequently and at a higher level than comparison group students, with notable differences in general behaviors, problem solving, and research strategies. Multivariate analyses revealed that overall, experimental group students scored significantly higher than comparison group students on the subscales of interest and enjoyment, and grade level comparisons yielded differing results. Qualitative analyses supported and provided insight into quantitative results. Findings from this study supported previous research on full-time programming for advanced learners and delineated specific factors that may influence program effectiveness in engaging and challenging gifted adolescents.
The importance of funds of knowledge on economically disadvantaged rural European American students
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Burton, Whitney Blair; Mutua, Kagendo; Kuntz, Aaron M.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The identification and utilization of community funds of knowledge has been essential in understanding and assisting cultural groups to bridge the achievement gap. The purpose of this study was to examine the community funds of knowledge, the role of the parent, and the partnerships of a rural school in southeastern Appalachia, United States. Qualitative research enabled exploration of interactions between parents and teachers, roles parents play in the educational process, and teachers' use of existing funds of knowledge in the provision of educational services to young at-risk children. Two pre-kindergarten teachers and four families were involved in the study from the 2009 -2010 state pre-kindergarten program. The data from ethnographic semi-structured interviews, observations, and documents were coded, categorized, and identified by themes. Results indicated that the school functioned as connector between the community and its residents. Teachers were cognizant of the community funds of knowledge and utilized this knowledge in their teaching and assessment practices. The teachers gained cultural literacy through participation and observation of school and community events and interactions. As a result of having only one mid-year conference report, there was limited evidence to conclude the teachers' documentation of students' community funds of knowledge within the context of the select community. Although teachers engaged in practices that strengthened family involvement, the home-school partnerships could be enriched. Families informally partnered by teaching foundational skills at home. The recognized partnership began when the children enrolled in school with families engaging in volunteering, extending learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the school community. An added outcome was the relationship between the community and the school. The relationship was reciprocal with positive outcomes for community members, businesses, teachers, and students, and families. This partnership is unique and dates back to the establishment of the community with special emphasis given to the character and values of the local residents. Additional research can focus on the communication of educational standards prior to entering school and increasing the participation of marginalized populations. Teacher perceptions of student backgrounds can also be reviewed in light of their effect on the quality of school-family partnerships.
The effects of virtual coaching on co-teachers' planning and instruction
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Ploessl, Donna Marie; Rock, Marcia L.; Gregg, Madeleine; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Recent legislation requires that students with disabilities receive equal access to the same educational opportunities as their typically developing peers (Cook et al., 2011). Therefore, most students with disabilities receive all or part of their education in the general education classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Because of the diverse needs of students within the classrooms, co-teaching has become a popular method of special education service provision. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of virtual coaching provided to practicing co-teachers as they planned and cooperatively carried out instruction in the general education classroom. Single-case (ABAB) within participants withdrawal design was used to investigate the effectiveness of virtual coaching through online technologies on three co-teaching dyads (n=6). Data were collected through observations of archived video files, a Likert-type communication scale, and observational scales published in the co-teaching literature. Semi-structured interviews provided a measure of social validity. The efficacy of the virtual coaching intervention was examined through visual inspection of the data and percentage of nonoverlapping data. Observers used time-sampling measures to document student engagement during baseline and intervention conditions. Results indicated that all teachers increased use of varied co-teaching models and student-specific accommodations. Praise remained high while redirection of student behavior decreased over the length of the study. Students and co-teachers were not distracted by the virtual coaching intervention. The limitations of the study, implications for research and practice, as well as suggestions for future research are discussed. This study extended the work of Rock et al. (2009) and Scheeler et al. (2010).
An examination of how knowledgeable and skilled elementary principals lead special education programs in Alabama: four case studies
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Templeton, Richard Raymond; Beirne-Smith, Mary; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 increased the importance of having principals who are not only effective leaders of general education programs but knowledgeable and skilled in special education and able to effectively lead special education programs. The researcher examined four principals of elementary schools (i.e., kindergarten through fifth grades) in Alabama. Two principals (i.e., Case A and Case B) were identified as being knowledgeable and skilled in special education, and two principals (i.e., Case C and Case D) were identified as being marginally knowledgeable and skilled in special education. The purpose of this study is to determine the similarities between how principals who are knowledgeable and skilled in special education lead and support the special education programs at their schools, to examine the differences between how those principals and principals who are identified as marginal in their knowledge and skill in special education lead and support special education programs at their schools, and examine the role that the principal who is knowledgeable and skilled in special education plays. This study attempts to gain a deeper understanding of the constructs of effective special education leadership at the school level. A sequential mixed-methods process was used to collect data. The researcher used a survey to collect data during Phase 1 that was analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics within-case and a means comparison across cases. In Phase 2, data were collected from (a) archival records, (b) interviews, (c) documentation, and (d) direct observations. Data were analyzed through a within-case analysis through coding, categorizing, and identifying emerging themes. Data were analyzed through a cross-case analysis for similarities between principals who are knowledgeable and skilled in special education and then between principals who are marginally knowledgeable and skilled in special education. Then differences between the two groups where identified. Conclusions are drawn in five areas: (a) necessity of knowledge and skill in special education, (b) possession of knowledge and skill in special education, (c) the roles principals play as leader of the special education program, (d) how principals support special education programs, and (e) special education oversight at the school level.
Teaching students with severe and multiple disabilities: the implementation of shared stories
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Lee, Cynthia Dockery; Beirne-Smith, Mary; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study investigated the results of employing shared story reading during literacy instruction for participants with severe and multiple disabilities. This intervention was conducted in an effort to improve independent responses made by participants with severe and multiple disabilities within a small group on a task analysis during shared stories. The participants of the study were elementary students receiving special education services who were enrolled in two schools within the local educational agency (LEA). The researcher employed a task analysis to identify correct response patterns from participants. The researcher and other professionals implementing related services employed Universal Design for Learning (UDL) techniques in an effort to augment independent correct responses within small group instruction. The UDL techniques incorporated augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices and intraverbal training techniques in an effort to promote independence and participation. The researcher provided intraverbal training by presenting various styles of questions during literacy training, and the participants used AAC devices, picture symbols, communication boards, and objects relating to the story to appropriately respond to specific questions from the task analysis. The task analysis measured the students' intraverbal skills, comprehension, and participation. Only the independent responses were incorporated for inclusion into this study; however, general reactions and nonresponsiveness were recorded to facilitate improved participant engagement through UDL planning. This task analysis was employed for each participant during the baseline, intervention, generalization, and maintenance phases of the study. Professionals who attended the team planning meetings completed a checklist to ensure that all components of UDL were addressed for each step of the task analysis. The results of the current study indicated that the number of independent correct responses increased for all participants across all phases of the study. The study indicated that the participants engaged during shared story reading by attending to objects, using AAC devices to interact during the story and demonstrate comprehension of text. Taken together with the Browder, Mims, et al. (2008) study, the results of the study suggested that the implementation of UDL components with shared story reading is an effective method to promote literacy learning for students with severe and multiple disabilities.
Effect of students' behavioral characteristics on teachers' referral decisions in gifted education
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Hollyhand, Leigh Smitherman; Mutua, Kagendo; Newman, Jane L.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Research shows that biases exist in regard to teacher nominations for gifted programs in the areas of student gender, ethnicity, and SES. On the other hand, there is a lack of research regarding behavioral characteristics of the student and the impact of those characteristics on teacher nominations to a gifted program. Additionally, there is a paucity of research that has examined the collective impact of behavioral characteristics of the student in conjunction with other student attributes such as gender, ethnicity, SES, and teacher nominations to gifted programs. For purposes of this study, the behavioral characteristics discussed were positive and negative gifted characteristics found in the literature. This was a quantitative research study using survey research where participants were asked to read and respond to a case vignette. Participants were 633 elementary education teachers from two mid-size school districts in the Southeastern United States. Each participant was randomly assigned one of 16 case vignettes. Eight of the vignettes depicted a student displaying positive gifted characteristics, while the other eight depicted a student displaying negative gifted characteristics. The other student characteristics of gender, ethnicity, and SES were interchangeable among the 16 vignettes. The results of this study show that the student's behavior does play a significant role in the teacher's nomination decision for the gifted program. Results indicated students displaying positive gifted characteristics were three times more likely to be nominated to a gifted program than a student exhibiting negative gifted characteristics. When stratified by various student characteristics (i.e. gender, ethnicity, and SES), teacher nominations were significantly associated with student behavior, with students exhibiting positive gifted characteristics more likely to be nominated than those displaying negative gifted characteristics.
Strengths and weaknesses in reading skills of youth with intellectual disabilities
(Pergamon, 2013) Channell, Marie Moore; Loveall, Susan J.; Conners, Frances A.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Reading-related skills of youth with intellectual disability (ID) were compared with those of typically developing (TD) children of similar verbal ability level. The group with ID scored lower than the TD group on word recognition and phonological decoding, but similarly on orthographic processing and rapid automatized naming (RAN). Further, phonological decoding significantly mediated the relation between group membership and word recognition, whereas neither orthographic processing nor RAN did so. The group with ID also underperformed the TD group on phonological awareness and phonological memory, both of which significantly mediated the relation between group membership and phonological decoding. These data suggest that poor word recognition in youth with ID may be due largely to poor phonological decoding, which in turn may be due largely to poor phonological awareness and poor phonological memory. More focus on phonological skills in the classroom may help students with ID to develop better word recognition skills. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Effect of demographic factors on empowerment attributions of parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Perry, Ashley Hayden; Mutua, Kagendo; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of demographic factors on empowerment attributions of parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Data were collected to determine differences between demographic factors of participants and self-reported empowerment attributions. A quantitative research design was employed in this study. Parents of children with ASD completed the 32-item Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES), which included a demographic questionnaire. Analyses were performed to measure the effects of specified demographic factors on parents' self-reported responses on the three dimensions of the Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES), namely attitude, formal participatory behaviors, informal participatory behaviors and skills and knowledge (Zimmerman, 1995). Demographic factors included marital status, parent gender, parent education level and perceived severity of child's ASD. The findings of the current study suggest that there are some relationships between demographic factors and parent empowerment attributes for parents of children with ASD. Parents who were married did not report a significant difference in perceived empowerment based on their own formal or informal education or support participatory behaviors than parents who were not married or parents who reported being in a partnership. Gender played a more significant role in the empowerment outcomes for parents of children with ASD. Mothers reported higher levels of empowerment than fathers in regard to informal participatory behaviors regarding parenting a child with ASD. Parents who had attended college reported higher levels of empowerment in regard to the empowerment attribute of skills and knowledge. Parents of children with ASD who participated in this study did not indicate that the severity of their child's ASD had an effect on their empowerment attribute of attitude. In addition to demographic differences, results indicated that there was a strong, positive correlation between formal participatory behavior and skills and knowledge and informal participatory behavior and skills and knowledge for parents of children with ASD. This study has begun to provide important information on the interaction effects of demographics on parent empowerment and the benefits of parent education and support for parents of children with ASD. Parents of children with ASD defined themselves as unique subgroup of parents of children with disabilities who have different strengths and needs in regard to empowerment. Outcomes of the study can be used to develop practice, programs, and policy in regard to education and support opportunities for parents of children with ASD from a more individualized, diverse or culturally sensitive perspective.
Visuo-spatial ability in individuals with Down syndrome: Is it really a strength?
(Pergamon, 2014) Yang, Yingying; Conners, Frances A.; Merrill, Edward C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Down syndrome (DS) is associated with extreme difficulty in verbal skills and relatively better visuo-spatial skills. Indeed, visuo-spatial ability is often considered a strength in DS. However, it is not clear whether this strength is only relative to the poor verbal skills, or, more impressively, relative to cognitive ability in general. To answer this question, we conducted an extensive literature review of studies on visuo-spatial abilities in people with Down syndrome from January 1987 to May 2013. Based on a general taxonomy of spatial abilities patterned after Lohman, Pellegrino, Alderton, and Regian (1987) and Carroll (1993) and existing studies of DS, we included five different domains of spatial abilities - visuo-spatial memory, visuo-spatial construction, mental rotation, closure, and wayfinding. We evaluated a total of 49 studies including 127 different comparisons. Most comparisons involved a group with DS vs. a group with typical development matched on mental age and compared on a task measuring one of the five visuo-spatial abilities. Although further research is needed for firm conclusions on some visuo-spatial abilities, there was no evidence that visuo-spatial ability is a strength in DS relative to general cognitive ability. Rather, the review suggests an uneven profile of visuo-spatial abilities in DS in which some abilities are commensurate with general cognitive ability level, and others are below. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Using covert audio coaching prompts to increase student pragmatic conversation skills
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2014) Myrick, John Wesley; Mutua, Kagendo; Siders, James A.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The importance of social skills for students with disabilities has given rise to this study. The ability to effectively communicate with family members, peers, and potential co-workers can lead to positive outcomes for individuals with cognitive disabilities. Many students struggle with social interaction and exhibit pragmatic communication behaviors that can disrupt the delivery of verbal and non-verbal messages. The overarching purpose of this study was to examine the effects of using Covert Audio Coaching (CAC) to address specific targeted distracting conversation behaviors that could potentially interfere with an individual's social interaction with others. Individuals were observed during conversation groups conducted in a transition program located on a university campus in the southeastern United States. A multiple baseline design across behaviors was employed in this study. Individuals with varying cognitive disabilities participated in the study based on observations made during group conversations.
The impact of the national board for professional teaching standards on special educators
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2014) Buchanan, Dania Lynne; Beirne-Smith, Mary; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
In the United States, educational reform has focused on teachers and their responsibility for student achievement. Hence, the development of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) to provide a national system of recognition for teachers that will transform and unify the teaching profession (Hamsa, 1998). The NBPTS' mission in education is to "maintain high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do, provide a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these standards, and advocating related education reforms to integrate National Board Certification (NBC) in American education and to capitalize on the expertise of NBPTS certified teachers" (NBPTS,2001, p. v). In 1994, the NBPTS created a committee of special educators to develop national standards to define professional growth and contemporary practice in the field of special education in accordance with the Five Core Propositions of the NBPTS. The changing role of the special educators in educational reform has forced special educators to seek alternative forms of professional development to meet the needs of the diverse population of students with disparate needs in the classroom. Current research on the use of NBPTS certification process as appropriate professional development has proven that the certification process is a viable means of maintaining professional knowledge for the general educator. However, there is minimal research on the impact of the NBPTS certification process has on special educators and the students that receive special education services. This study is a mixed methods study that explored the use of the NBPTS process as an appropriate mode of professional development for special educators outside of the traditional workshop model of professional development. Models of professional development are discussed, features of professional development are explored, professional development for special educators is examined, and the study is situated within the theoretical framework of Constructivism Theory. The NSDC Standards Assessment Inventory-2 survey (see Appendix A) was administered in addition to demographic information collected. The qualitative portion of the study engaged NBPTS Exceptional Needs recipients in a voluntary interview to determine their affective experience in regard to the NBPTS certification process.
Rule-Based Category Learning in Down Syndrome
(American Association on Intellectual Developmental Disabilities, 2014) Phillips, B. Allyson; Conners, Frances A.; Merrill, Edward; Klinger, Mark R.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of North Carolina; University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
Rule-based category learning was examined in youths with Down syndrome (DS), youths with intellectual disability (ID), and typically developing (TD) youths. Two tasks measured category learning: the Modified Card Sort task (MCST) and the Concept Formation test of the Woodcock-Johnson-III (Woodock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001). In regression-based analyses, DS and ID groups performed below the level expected for their nonverbal ability. In cross-sectional developmental trajectory analyses, results depended on the task. On the MCST, the DS and ID groups were similar to the TD group. On the Concept Formation test, the DS group had slower cross-sectional change than the other 2 groups. Category learning may be an area of difficulty for those with ID, but task-related factors may affect trajectories for youths with DS.
Family Experience in a Regional Participant Contact Registry for Research on Intellectual Disability
(American Association on Intellectual Developmental Disabilities, 2014) Conners, Frances A.; Phillips, B. Allyson; Rhodes, Jennifer D.; Hamilton, James C.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
Participant recruitment is one of the most significant challenges in research on intellectual disability (ID). One potential solution is to develop a participant contact registry, which allows the researcher to contact participants directly rather than recruiting through multiple schools or service agencies. The authors describe the development of one such registry and results of a survey of registry families. Results suggest that families joined the registry to help others, they hope research in the ID field improves the daily lives of individuals with ID and their families, and they find research participation to be a positive experience. However, logistic concerns can be an important barrier to their research participation, and they would like more information about the research study both before and after participating.
Matching variables for research involving youth with Down syndrome: Leiter-R versus PPVT-4
(Pergamon, 2014) Phillips, B. Allyson; Loveall, Susan J.; Channell, Marie Moore; Conners, Frances A.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Kansas; University of California Davis
Much of what is known about the cognitive profile of Down syndrome (DS) is based on using either receptive vocabulary (e.g., PPTV-4) or nonverbal ability (e.g., Leiter-R) as a baseline to represent cognitive developmental level. In the present study, we examined the relation between these two measures in youth with DS, with non-DS intellectual disability (ID), and with typical development (TD). We also examined the degree to which these two measures produce similar results when used as a group matching variable. In a cross-sectional developmental trajectory analysis, we found that the relation between PPVT-4 and Leiter-R was largely similar across groups. However, when contrasting PPVT-4. and Leiter-R as alternate matching variables, the pattern of results was not always the same. When matched on Leiter-R or PPVT-4, the group with DS performed below that of the groups with ID and TD on receptive grammar and below the group with TD on category learning. When matched on the PPVT-4, the group with ID performed below that of the group with TD on receptive grammar and category learning, but these differences between the groups with ID and TD were not found when matched on the Leiter-R. The results of the study suggest that the PPVT-4 and Leiter-R are interchangeable at least for some outcome measures for comparing youth With DS and TD, but they may produce different results when comparing youth with ID and TD. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
The effect of explicit vocabulary instruction using specialized graphic organizers in secondary mathematics for students with disabilities
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Long, Mary Elizabeth; Newman, Jane L.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
There is a clear and distinct difference in the levels of knowledge versus levels of understanding when measuring the ability of a student to reach mastery of a concept in the educational environment. Increased levels of rigor in today's classroom exhibit the necessity of a paradigm shift related effective academic instruction. Mathematics as a content area currently focuses on conceptual understanding as opposed to traditional procedural knowledge. In accordance with this shift in educational practice, students must demonstrate a clear and concise understanding of the terminology used in the development of mathematical problems, specifically abstract word problems, used to assess levels of mastery of required content. The purpose of this study was to examine if a positive correlation exists between explicit vocabulary instruction in secondary mathematics using graphic organizers specially designed for mathematics vocabulary instruction in conjunction with an instructional routine (Explicit Instructional Routine) and increased student achievement in demonstrating knowledge and understanding of Algebraic concepts. Previous studies associated with academic enhancements, interventions, and routines for students with learning disabilities ascertain that increased levels of knowledge and understanding are reached when implemented with fidelity.
The effects of a self-monitoring practice in a middle school setting
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2016) Floyd, Howard Kelly; Siders, James A.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of a self-monitoring practice in a middle school setting. A total of three participants who received special education services utilized this self-monitoring practice to evaluate their individual behaviors. This investigation took place in an inclusive classroom setting where the participants received instruction from a certified teacher alongside their non-disabled peers. A multiple baseline ABAB design was employed to determine the effectiveness of a cuing procedure on two specific measures; 1.) staying on task and 2.) following directions. The participants recorded data on their individual intervention sheets during the intervention phases. Each of the participants made improvements toward the two specified measures. This investigation revealed that self-monitoring practices can be used to manage students’ behaviors and to assist teachers with classroom management.
Sex education in schools for students with disabilities: a qualitative study
(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Williamson, Amy; Mutua, Kagendo; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa
This study addresses the paucity of research in the area of sexuality and disability, especially women with disabilities, and even more so research on women with significant intellectual disabilities. Indeed, the small body of research that has been done previously has relied on the perspectives, opinions, and stories from the caregiver and/or teachers. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which young women with intellectual disabilities tell stories about sex education and its impact on their desired adult outcomes. To explore these unique narratives a qualitative single case design with embedded units was utilized. Individual interviews and focus group interviews were conducted with six young women with intellectual disabilities ranging in age from 19 to 21 years and from varied racial backgrounds. The participants were students in a campus-based transition program that taught sex education as part of their transition skills instruction. The overarching findings in this study were that sex education (a) allowed them to construct empowering narratives of themselves, (b) was a normalizing experience where they were able to engage in “girl talk” with each other and with the teacher, and (c) was a context to reflect on the influences and impact of the course on their lives. The implications for research and praxis are discussed in light of the importance of sex education for youth with intellectual disabilities.
A cross-sectional analysis of executive function in Down syndrome from 2 to 35 years
(Wiley, 2017) Loveall, S. J.; Conners, F. A.; Tungate, A. S.; Hahn, L. J.; Osso, T. D.; University of Mississippi; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Kansas; University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background Previous research has indicated a unique profile of executive function (EF) in children and adolescents with Down syndrome (DS). However, there is a paucity of research on EF in adults with DS. This study aimed to gain a broader understanding of strengths and weaknesses in EF in DS from 2 to 35 years. Method Parents of 112 individuals with DS between 2 and 35 years participated in this study. Parents either completed the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function - for individuals 6+ years -or the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function Preschool Version - for children 2-5 years. Results Results suggest not only overall difficulties but also patterns of strength and weakness within EF for individuals with DS. For the 2 to 5-year-old group, emotional control and shift were relative strengths, planning/organisation and inhibit were intermediate skills, and working memory was a relative weakness. For the 6 to 18-year-old group, emotional control and organisation of materials were relative strengths, inhibit and initiate were intermediate skills, and working memory, monitor, planning/organisation, and shift were relative weaknesses. Most abilities were consistent from 2 to 18 years, except shift, which decreased in preadolescence before beginning to recover in adolescence. Across the full age range (2-35 years), composite scores indicated quadratic trends in inhibit, working memory, and planning/organisation, and a cubic trend in shift, with EF abilities generally declining in middle childhood before recovering in adulthood. Conclusions This study extends previous research on EF in DS by providing an initial description of EF profiles across the lifespan. More longitudinal and behavioural research is needed to further characterise the development of EF in DS.

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