Browsing by Author "Leeper, James D."
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Item Adaptation of a Survey Regarding Dental Hygiene Behaviors Among College Students: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior(University of Alabama Libraries, 2022) Moore, John Blaine; Turner, Lori W.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBackground: In the United States (U.S.), 26% of adults have untreated tooth decay, and 46% of adults have gum disease. Neglecting dental hygiene behaviors results in physical and psychological stress, social anxiety, and a lower quality of life. College presents a transitional time, where behavioral development continues from adolescence to adulthood. However, reasons for dental neglect during this time are unclear. Purpose: This study aims to adapt and validate a theory-based instrument using the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) to examine the oral hygiene behaviors of college students. This study involves three stages: (1) a systematic review of questionnaires used to assess oral hygiene behaviors of college students using the Theory of Planned, (2) the adaptation of a TPB-based survey that examines dental hygiene behaviors, and (3) measuring the effectiveness of TPB in explaining dental hygiene behaviors. Method: An instrument was adapted for college using a previously validated survey found in the literature (Buunk-Werkhoven et al., 2011). Pilot testing of the adapted survey along with cognitive interviews with college students (n=4) assessed readability, comprehensibility, and time needed to complete all items. The final version of the instrument was administered electronically to all participants (n = 370). Statistical analyses were used to examine variables.Results: Findings indicate that 63% of participants met toothbrushing recommendations, 20% met interdental cleaning recommendations, and 48.6% met dental visit recommendations. The constructs of subjective norms and perceived behavioral control were the most common significant predictors of each dental hygiene behavior. Additional predictors did not display significance among the examined population.Discussion: There are differences in predictors of intentions and behavior for each dental hygiene behavior examined. College students display positive intentions to perform each examined dental hygiene behavior, although the percentage of respondents meeting the recommendation are low. Health education and promotion strategies can be implemented to reinforce these behaviors. Conclusion: Overall, dental hygiene behaviors among college students progressively declines as one goes through college. Universities should carefully consider improving availability of dental hygiene resources on-campus. Dental health education can be improved to promote the importance of dental hygiene throughout one's time in college.Item Anchoring effects in comparative nutrition claims: the presence of anchor brand and the role of scale(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Shen, Bin; Zhou, Shuhua; University of Alabama TuscaloosaAlthough anchoring effects have been considered highly robust and pervasive in decision-making, the theory of anchoring and adjustment has been rarely applied in studying comparative advertising or health claims. This dissertation fills the gap by examining the effects of brand anchoring on people's nutritiousness perception, attitudes toward the ad, attitudes toward the brand, and purchase intention. It also examines whether different scales (percentage vs. fraction) on which a nutritional attribute is expressed has any advertising effect. Furthermore, this dissertation extends the investigation into the possible moderating roles of personal involvement, health consciousness, and product experience in anchoring procedures. In order to examine the anchoring effect in comparative nutrition claims, a 2 (without anchor brand vs. with anchor brand) × 2 (expanded scale vs. contracted scale) × 2 (products) mixed-factorial experiment was carried out. Data were collected from 304 students recruited from a business school at a Western university. Findings revealed significant differences across anchoring conditions for the granola bar ad, but not for the chocolate ad, which supported the case-by-case approach adopted by the FTC in regulating health claims and warranted future studies on additional product categories. Results also showed that using an anchor brand or an expanded scale to describe nutrition content resulted in an inflated perception of product benefits and more favorable attitudes toward the ad. This dissertation offers insight into the effectiveness of using comparative nutrition claims to attract consumers and the importance of developing remedies to protect consumers from confusing claims. Furthermore, the research results are consistent with existing anchoring research suggesting that an anchoring process is generally not moderated by traditionally recognized moderating factors in comparative advertising research, including personal involvement, health consciousness, and product experience. The theoretical implications and practical applications of the research findings are finally discussed.Item Antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership of PR practitioners(University of Alabama Libraries, 2009) Kang, Jin-Ae; Berger, Bruce K.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe purpose of this research was to explore antecedents and consequences of public relations practitioners' ethical leadership behavior. Before doing so, this study integrated practitioners' ethical behavior into the concept of ethical leadership behaviors. Ethical leadership behavior in public relations is not only the application of ethical standards in day-to-day work, but is also the promotion of ethics: A practitioner promotes ethics by acting as an ethics counselor, and an activist. I administered an online survey to the 252 members of Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) in August and September of 2008. I mainly used factor analysis and regression analyses to test the research questions and hypotheses. Ethical behavior of public relations practitioners are composed of two dimensions - applying ethical standards, and promoting ethics within an organization. This result is consistent with the conceptual definition of ethical leadership. In addition, ethical autonomy was found to be a prerequisite of ethical leadership. The findings suggested that organizational environment and individual factors affect ethical leadership behaviors. Regarding organizational environment, the ethics of the top management were found to be a fundamental source of an organization's ethical culture. Top management's support for ethical behavior facilitated the establishment of formal ethics systems, such as codes of ethics, ethics training programs, and ethics officers. It also fostered an open communication environment. Among formal and informal ethics systems, only an open communication environment significantly affected the level of ethical autonomy. The organizational environment also fostered dissent actions against unethical decisions. If top management did not encourage ethical behavior, public relations practitioners were more likely to confront management against unethical decisions. Agitating tactics were more often used in the organizations which did not have an ethics code. In an organization that repressed discussion, practitioners were more likely to use information selectively to make their own arguments against unethical decisions, and to sabotage the unethical decisions. On the other hand, individual ethical positions affected practitioners. Practitioners with a high level of idealism and low relativisitic ethical stances were more likely to apply ethics standards at work, and to act as ethics counselors. Practitioners with high idealistic and low relativistic ethical stances preferred confrontational actions. Advocates of ethical relativism were more likely to collect information to make their own arguments, use sabotage and even leak information about unethical decisions. As consequences of ethical leadership behaviors, the levels of ethical influence and job satisfaction were examined. The more practitioners perceived that they applied ethical principles to their work; the more likely they were to perceive that their views about ethics were influential. The perceived level of ethical influence was also strong among practitioners who confronted management over unethical decisions. These behaviors appeared to increase job satisfaction through an increase in ethical influence. However, enacting the ethics counselor role was not positively associated with the level of ethical influence. Lastly, answers to the open-ended question suggest that ethical conflicts decrease practitioners' job satisfaction.Item Anxiety and affective responses to acute bouts of moderate intensity exercise (walking): effects of varying durations(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Geary, Colleen Louise; Richardson, Mark T.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaAnxiety affects approximately 40 million American adults each year (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, and Walters, 2005; National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2009). However, the dose-response research investigating the antianxiety and affective benefits of acute bouts of exercise indicates that multiple dose-response issues remain unresolved. The purpose of this study was to investigate the anxiolytic and affective responses following an acute bout of moderate intensity walking of different durations (30, 10 and 5 minutes) on a moderately fit, non-clinically anxious population. This study also sought to test the duration of effect by assessing post-exercise responses immediately and at 20 and 40 minutes post-exercise. This is the first study to include the analysis of four specific covariates (trait anxiety, fitness level, enjoyment of activity, and sex) when examining psychological responses to walking. One of the main findings of the current investigation was that a main effect of time was observed for the majority of variables. While some measures showed favorable (anxiety, tense arousal, calmness, tension, tranquility, physical exhaustion, affective valence, and revitalization) other measures ultimately showed unfavorable (positive affect, perceived activation, energetic arousal, energy, and positive engagement) responses following the cessation of exercise. Secondly, although several measures were affected by exercise duration (tranquility, physical exhaustion, and affective valence), the majority were not. Finally, of the four covariates, only fitness (positive affect, energetic arousal, and energy) and sex (positive affect, revitalization, energy, and calmness) influenced the exercise-affect relationship.Item Barriers to exercise/physical activity for adolescents in rural west Alabama(University of Alabama Libraries, 2016) Cox, Melissa; Richardson, Mark T.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaRegular physical activity (PA) in childhood and adolescence improves strength and endurance, helps build healthy bones and muscles, helps control weight, reduces anxiety and stress, increases self-esteem, and may improve blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) shows PA trends among adolescents (defined as 13 – 18 yrs.) decrease such that the majority of adolescents are not participating in sufficient activity to meet recommended guidelines. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) risk factors that are present in adolescence have a tendency to track into adulthood. Youth who are overweight tend to have a higher prevalence of CVD risk factors than their normal weight peers. Rural adolescents may not be engaging in PA as often as their urban counterparts due to barriers of their rural lifestyle. Many rural communities are characterized by vast distances, low socioeconomic status, transportation challenges, and low public funding levels for facilities, programs, and other public amenities. Rural residency, especially in the southern U.S. has been associated with low levels of PA. The rural population is very unique in that they have specific barriers to PA. These may be social, financial, transportation, personal (i.e. lack of time, resources, caregiver responsibilities) or environmental factors (i.e., transportation, inadequate programs, lack of facilities). The purpose of this study was to extend previous findings by surveying a large sample of rural Alabama adolescents regarding barriers to PA and surveying parents and school administrators in this regard as well. Also, this study evaluated the effect that age, race/ethnicity, gender, and SES have on barriers to PA. This study did indeed demonstrate several demographic differences concerning barriers to PA. Additionally, it demonstrated several differences between students, parents, and administrators regarding perceived barriers to PA. Finally, this study provided additional data concerning common barriers to PA reported in the literature. Gender and SES differences were found to be the two covariates that were barriers to exercise and PA in rural West Alabama adolescents.Item Beverage choice impact on hydration and performance for the recreational athlete(University of Alabama Libraries, 2010) O'Neal, Eric Kyle; Bishop, Phillip A.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThree studies examined hydration and performance for recreational exercisers (REC). Three beverages (flavored caloric (CE) and non-caloric (NCE) electrolyte-containing sport drinks and water (W)) were served to male (n = 24) and female (n = 14) REC in a counter-balanced order during 1-h of moderate intensity cycling (mean ± SD heart rate = 146 ± 4 beats/min) in an environment of 25° C wet bulb globe temperature. The volume of beverage served was equal to sweat loss measured (mean ± SE = 834 ± 59 mL) in a familiarization trial with no fluid intake during exercise. No differences (p > .05) among beverages were found in: performance (peak and mean power) during a set of three Wingate Anaerobic Tests completed after cycling, perceived exertion, or mood states among beverages. After exercise in the familiarization trial with no fluid intake, participants drank ad libitum for 30 min with all beverages available. Consumption volume among beverages did not differ (p > .05). Participants reported that replacing 100% of sweat loss was an appropriate volume and did not result in stomach discomfort for the majority of individuals in fluid intake during exercise sessions. Total intake in the familiarization session when fluids were consumed in recovery only (mean ± SD, 971 ± 375 mL) was less (p < .001) than when consumed during both exercise and recovery (W (1,415 ± 560 mL,), NCE (1,244 ± 538 mL, p < .001), and CE (1,196 ± 444 mL), and W was greater than CE (p = .01)). The survey found decreased performance (69%) and heat-illness (45%) believed to be related to dehydration among runners was very common. Almost all (94%) of participants (n = 276) reported drinking during outdoor runs in warm weather. Faster higher volume runners believed that consuming sport beverages would result in improved performance and better hydration than water. For REC exercising for ~1 h, replacing sweat loss during exercise and drinking ad libitum afterwards, should result in a fluid intake level that will return body mass close to pre-exercise level, be tolerable, and result in no decrease in performance when W or CE are used instead of CE.Item Brand imitation strategy, package design and consumer response: what does it take to make a difference?(University of Alabama Libraries, 2016) Qiao, Fei; Griffin, William G.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaDrawing upon visual semiotics and creativity theories, this study investigated the effectiveness of brand imitation strategy on the package design of three different products among millennials. The products were male-targeted, female-targeted and gender-neutral. Three 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects factorial experiments were conducted with three independent variables: shape (relevant vs. divergent), color (relevant vs. divergent) and icon (relevant vs. divergent) on three products: an energy drink (a male-targeted product), hair spray (a female-targeted product) and a breakfast cereal (a gender-neutral product). Participants’ attitude toward the leading brands served as a control variable. Dependent variables consisted of participants’ attitude toward the brand (Ab), attitude toward the product (Ap) and purchase intention (PI). The findings raised three theoretical implications. First, rather than iconography that imitated that of a leading brand, a similar color scheme was more powerful in influencing participants’ Ab, Ap and PI. Second, a more holistically similar design showed more impact on participants’ attitudinal and behavioral changes than a less similar design. Nevertheless, some “divergence” or distinctive design elements did positively influence participants’ brand and product attitudes, as well as their purchase intention, in relationship to the female-targeted product. More detailed theoretical implications are further discussed in the study. In addition, a conceptual model is proposed to better define brand imitation. Practical implications and study limitations are also included.Item Cardiovascular and themoregulatory responses to ice slurry ingestion during heat stress(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Ng, Jason; Wingo, Jonathan E.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaFluid ingestion has been reported to influence cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function, thereby affecting exercise performance. It remains unclear whether ice slurry ingestion during exercise results in similar effects. Three experiments examined thermal-, cardiovascular-, and exercise-related responses to ice slurry ingestion. In the first study, participants in firefighter protective clothing walked at ~7 METs in 35 °C while ingesting carbohydrate-electrolyte beverages as a tepid fluid, cold fluid, and ice slurry in a counterbalanced repeated measures study design. When ingested in large quantities and during uncompensable heat stress, ice slurry ingestion mitigated physiological strain by attenuating the rise in heart rate and rectal temperature. In a second study, cardiovascular drift (CV drift) was measured during 45 min of cycling at 60% maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) in 35 °C, immediately followed by measurement of V̇O2max. Participants ingested fluid and ice slurry during two counterbalanced trials of exercise. CV drift was attenuated with ice slurry ingestion but V̇O2max was unaffected. In a third study, participants ingested ice slurry or cold fluid ad libitum while cycling at 50% maximal workload in 35 °C, immediately followed by a 15-min time trial during which participants completed as much work as possible. Compared to the fluid treatment, participants consumed half as much ice slurry, but total work completed during the time trial was not different. In conclusion, ice slurry ingestion blunts physiological strain during conditions in which evaporative heat loss is impaired, such as when wearing occlusive coverings. Furthermore, ice slurry ingestion attenuates the magnitude of CV drift during exercise in the heat, but this does not blunt the decrease in V̇O2max associated with exercise in hot conditions. Lastly, a smaller quantity of ice slurry is voluntarily ingested compared to cold fluid during prolonged submaximal exercise in the heat, but this does not differentially affect exercise performance.Item Cardiovascular drift and maximal oxygen uptake during heat stress in women(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Stone, Tori; Wingo, Jonathan E.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaDuring prolonged constant-rate exercise, heart rate and stroke volume progressively increase and decrease, respectively, characterizing cardiovascular (CV) drift. CV drift is greater when driven by hyperthermia and generally results in proportional decreases in maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max). Less is known about CV drift and decrements in V̇O2max in women because nearly all studies on this topic focused on men. This dissertation determined the effects of hormonal status, fitness level, and sudomotor function on CV drift and V̇O2max in women. In 3 separate studies, CV drift was measured during 45 min of cycling in 35 °C, immediately followed by measurement of V̇O2max. V̇O2max also was measured after 15 min in a separate trial to assess changes in V̇O2max over the same time interval that CV drift occurred. Study 1 compared follicular (FP) and luteal phases (LP) of the menstrual cycle during exercise at 60% V̇O2max. Resting and exercise core temperatures (Tre) were higher in LP, but increases during exercise (ΔTre) were similar to FP, so the CV drift/V̇O2max relationship was not modulated by phase. Study 2 compared high-fit (HI) and low-fit (LO) women during exercise at 60% V̇O2max (REL) and 500 W of metabolic heat production (FIXED). During REL, heat production and ΔTre were significantly greater in HI versus LO, as were magnitudes of CV drift and decrements in V̇O2max. During FIXED, heat production, ΔTre, CV drift, and V̇O2max were similar between groups. Study 3 compared women to men during exercise at 500 W of metabolic heat production. For women, sweating plateaued and accelerated ΔTre compared to men, but differences in CV drift and V̇O2max were not statistically discernible between sexes. In conclusion, the relationship between CV drift and V̇O2max during heat stress does not change across the menstrual cycle and is not affected by fitness level, independent of metabolic heat production. The relationship is similar between men and women during 45 min of exercise at the same, relatively high load.Item Channel differences in political campaign advertisements and their effects on individuals' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses in social media context(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Kim, Yeojin; Zhou, Shuhua; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThis dissertation examined cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to different channels of political campaign advertisements in the social media context. Different channels such as social media platform (Facebook vs. Twitter), level of interactivity (high vs. low) and modality (visual vs. audiovisual advertisements) were manipulated as predictors of campaign learning, candidate evaluation, and political behavior. Several theories and concepts regarding interactivity (i.e., the theory of user control, the theory of structural isomorphism, the media richness theory, the social presence theory, cognitive load, and disorientation) and modality (i.e., the dual coding theory, the cue summation theory, the limited-capacity information processing theory, and multiple resource theory) were employed to investigate what conditions of modality and interactivity embedded within social media have the strongest effects on users’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses in political campaign advertisements. Data were collected from 317 participants who completed the online experiment via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Findings demonstrated that interactivity, modality, and social media platform differently influenced campaign learning, candidate evaluation, and political behavior. Facebook generated greater campaign learning than Twitter without consideration of other factors such as interactivity and modality, and audiovisual advertisements generated greater campaign learning than visual counterparts. However, no significant effects of interactivity on political outcomes were found. Interestingly, however, under combined conditions of social media platform and modality, a significant interaction was found in campaign learning and candidate evaluation. Further, there were significant effects of social media when political, cognitive, and emotional involvement with social media were added as covariates, showing that Twitter generated more political behaviors than Facebook. Conceptually, the present study provides a better understanding of the validity of traditional theories about medium and communication channel, especially in the social media context, by reexamining different conceptualizations of medium, channel, mode of presentation, and media platform and by reviewing unique characteristics of social media. This study provides theoretical contributions to the understanding of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to different channels in the political campaign context by adding an explanation of the effects of interactivity and modality in relation to social media. Practically, the findings of this study may help candidates and political campaign practitioners build appropriate strategies for political campaigns through social media platforms to encourage their target publics to engage in political activities including political learning, candidate evaluation, and political behaviors.Item Clicking and sharing health risk information on social media: how perception and emotion affect behavioral intentions(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Zhang, Xueying; Zhou, Shuhua; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe dissemination of health risk information is a topic of key importance in health communication. With an explosion of information, health risk messages on social media need to elicit users’ intention to click and to forward to be useful. This study aimed to examine how fear appeal message and individual differences combined to drive users’ intentions to click and share health risk messages on Social Networking Sites (SNSs). Two experiments were conducted online to test the predictors of intentions to click and share respectively, with participants recruited from Mturk. The results suggested that (1) fear appeal message influenced intentions to click and share in a different way than the risk related perceptions did; (2) cognitive elaborations of the risk played a more important role in motivating click and share; (3) individual’s characteristics predicted the intentions to click and share significantly; (4) information processing styles moderated the influence of efficacy perception’s influence on intention to share and (5) the intention to follow the message significantly predicted intention to share. The theoretical and practical implications for health risk message design were discussed.Item Compassionate responses toward victims: do perceived innocence, proximity and seriousness matter?(University of Alabama Libraries, 2012) Yan, Yan; Zhou, Shuhua; University of Alabama TuscaloosaPeople have an innate tendency to feel compassionate toward others' misfortunes. As in the context of natural disasters, compassion toward disaster victims is one of the most important driven forces underlying individual helping behaviors. The current research examines individual compassion and its related constructs under the specific context of disaster communication. By referring to Nussbaum's theory of compassion, this study proposes a model of compassion which states that individual compassion is an other-oriented emotional experience that contains cognitive assessment toward others person's suffering status. The cognitive assessment consist of three main dimensions: Perceived innocence, that the suffering is not caused primarily by the person's own culpable actions; perceived proximity, that one is possibly subject to a similar misfortune; and perceived seriousness, that the suffering is severe rather than trivial. These three cognitive perceptions are related to the way of media portrayal of disaster victims: Portrayal of disaster victims' age and gender influences people's perceptions of innocence; news reports of the cultural affiliation of victims impacts people's perceived proximity; and perceived seriousness varies according to the degree of physical severity of the victims' sufferings. Two experiments were conducted and the results of which mainly supported the proposed model of compassion. In particularly, only cognitive assessments of the disaster victims, that is, only perceived innocence, perceived proximity, and perceived seriousness predicted the variances of compassion significantly and directly. Variables of news portrayal of victims influenced compassion only through the mediation of corresponding cognitive responses. Only personal compassionate trait emerged as a moderator between perceived seriousness and compassion. This research shed light on compassion and compassion-related studies from the perspective of communication research. Further scholars should examine the generalization of the model among diverse populations and multiple contexts.Item Competitive sport in Web 2.0: consumer motivation, spectatorship experience, and the degreee of overlap between traditional sport and esport(University of Alabama Libraries, 2019) Hou, Jue; Billings, Andrew C.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaIn the 21st Century, eSport has gradually come into public sight as a new form of competitive spectator event. This type of modern competitive video gaming resembles the field of traditional sport in multiple ways, including players, leagues, tournaments and corporate sponsorship, etc. Nevertheless, academic discussion regarding the current treatment, benefit, and risk of eSport are still ongoing. This research project examined the status quo of the rising eSport field. Based on a detailed introduction of competitive video gaming history as well as an in-depth analysis of factors that constitute a sport, this study redefined eSport as a unique form of video game competition. From the theoretical perspective of uses and gratifications, this project focused on how eSport is similar to, or different from, traditional sports in terms of spectator motivations. The current study incorporated a number of previously validated-scales in sport literature and generated two surveys, and got 536 and 530 respondents respectively. This study then utilized the data and constructed the motivation scale for eSport spectatorship consumption (MSESC) through structural equation modeling. The current study then applied MSESC and compared the relationship between motivation and consumption under the context of eSport and traditional sport. Results of the current study indicated that communication between fans, the information-seeking need, and intentions to support the industry can positively predict eSport consumption while family-bonding and informational superiority were negatively associated with eSport consumption. Meanwhile, young male fans generally consume more eSport contents than others. Compare to traditional sport, eSport was superior in terms of fulfilling the need to witness professional techniques, to pass the time, and to get personal training. This study then discussed the application of uses and gratification approach in eSport, and suggested evaluation on eSport media coverage and experimentation on various motivation factors to advance the research on eSport consumption as this industry continues to grow.Item Coping at the intersection: a transformative mixed methods study of gendered racism as a root cause of mental health challenges in black college women(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) Burton, Wanda Martin; Birch, David A.; Paschal, Angelia M.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBackground. Racism negatively impacts mental health. Racial identity has been suggested as a buffer against the impact of racism. But women of color are exposed to gendered racism; based on intersectionality theory. The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of and coping strategies used to deal with gendered racism on the mental health of Black college women. Methods. The mixed methods design included a nonrandom sample of 213 Black college women. Mental health was operationalized as depression (PHQ-9) and psychological distress (K-6). Correlation and regression analyses tested the impact of gendered racism on mental health; examined the role of racial identity; and, explored coping strategies. Through intensity sampling, the qualitative phase included individual interviews (n=12) and a focus group (n=6). Narrative inquiry was used to construct composite counter-narratives, using thematic narrative analysis. Findings. Quantitative results suggested that 84% of the sample require mental health treatment. Gendered racism negatively correlated with mental health; the most significant correlation was between depression and the frequency of gendered racism, r(95) = .405, p ≤ .01. Racial identity was not related to mental health and therefore could not be tested as a mediating factor. The qualitative phase revealed narratives of gendered racism across multiple levels. The institutional level helped to create the normative experience of gendered racism through lack of effective policy; it also impacted the individual and interpersonal levels. Internalized gendered racism resulted in an acceptance of limitations to one's full humanity. The interpersonal level included narratives of sexual assault, being mistaken as ‘the help,’ and assumptions about communication style and educational level. The mixed methods results suggested that effective coping depends on increased education and the deconstruction of gendered racism followed by the use of humor and social support. Discussion. Gendered racism negatively impacts the mental health of Black college women. Interventions should include an emphasis on gendered racism. Narratives revealed how Black college women accept and resist the normative experience of gendered racism. The mixed methods design provided a more nuanced understanding of how Black women cope with gendered racism.Item CSR and facets of value creation: the role of key moderators(University of Alabama Libraries, 2013) Alhouti, Sarah; D'Souza, Giles; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe value corporate social responsibility (CSR) creates for consumers still remains unexplored although its importance has been demonstrated in several contexts including pricing (Chang and Wildt 1994), retailing (Baker, Parasuraman, Grewal, and Voss 2002), and across cultures (Xiao and Kim 2009). Monroe (2003) argues that consumers would be willing to pay a higher price when they perceive a substantial value associated with making a purchase. In order to resolve many of the inconsistent findings in the CSR literature, such as the inconsistencies of CSR's ability to influence attitude (Sen, Bhattacharya, and Korschun 2006; Webb and Mohr 1998) and purchase intent (Mohr and Webb 2005; Trudel and Cotte 2009), it is necessary to explore which facets of perceived value consumers derive from CSR. However, without knowing what type of perceived value consumers gain from CSR, researchers and managers lack the information they need to understand why consumers are willing (or not willing) to pay a higher price in the context of CSR. The value created by CSR depends on the type of CSR activity that the company engages in (Peloza and Shang 2011). This study utilized cause-related marketing (CrM) as a type of CSR and proposed that it will influence consumers' values. Specifically, the value consumers derive from CrM will be moderated by perceptual and attitudinal factors. The perceptual factors examined in this study include the company's reputation, the authenticity of the CSR action, and the consumer's perceived personal role. The attitudinal factors included in the study are cynicism, moral disengagement, and consumer alienation. Two experiments were conducted, and the results show that an authentic CSR image accompanied with CrM influences consumers' esteem and spiritual values. This study also finds that consumer values of esteem and spirituality create favorable consumer responses. Finally, the consumer's perception that he or she has a personal role in impacting a cause enhances the value derived from CrM.Item Determinants for the use of complementary and alternative medicine: results from a national study(University of Alabama Libraries, 2018) Allen, Kristen R.; Turner, Lori W.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaHealth disparities are differences that limit opportunities to attain optimal health. For many health conditions, minorities are living with or dying from the burden of disease, injury, and disability at early ages. Experts recommend physical activity, abstaining or quitting smoking, limiting alcohol consumption, and maintaining a healthy body weight to reduce the risk of chronic diseases and promote overall health. However, either instead of or in addition to engaging in some of the scientifically based recommendations, many individuals choose to use forms of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) to prevent or treat health related conditions. Some CAM modalities are safe and effective, some are potentially unsafe and effective, some are neutral, and others are potentially dangerous. Another issue is lack of patient disclosure to primary care providers regarding CAM use, which can result in complications from drug interactions, toxicities and/or other undesired effects. This study categorized CAM as safe and effective, unsafe and effective, neutral, and unsafe and ineffective; examined the use of safe and unsafe CAM therapies among a national sample of adults; identified the top three self-reported CAM modalities among a national sample of adults; and identified factors associated with patient disclosure for the top three self-reported CAM modalities. Additionally, this study ascertained the reported reasons for the use of the top three self-reported CAM modalities and determined which predisposing, enabling, need, and health behavior practices were related to CAM use among a national sample of adults. Data were extracted from the 2012 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), and the Sociobehavioral Model of CAM Use (SBM of CAM Use) served as the theoretical framework. Hierarchical log-linear regression was used to identify factors that influence determinants for the use of safe and unsafe CAM among a national sample of adults. Out of the 34,525 adults included in analysis, 75% of participants identified as White, 15% identified as AA, and 17% identified as Hispanic, and the average age of participants was 49 years old (M=48.53, SD=18.165). Chi-square analysis revealed small meaningfully significant associations in the predisposing, enabling, need, and health behavior practices for the use of safe, potentially unsafe, and neutral CAM. Specifically, significant differences in the use of a practitioner for acupuncture, chiropractic or osteopathic manipulation, massage and the use yoga, tai chi, and qi gong were associated with age (p <.001); sex was associated with yoga, tai chi, and qi gong; marital status and age (when combined) were significant predictors for the use of multi-vitamin or mineral supplements (p <.001). Educational attainment emerged as a significant predictor for the use of relaxation techniques, yoga, tai chi, and qi gong (p <.001). Income and perceived need were meaningfully significant predictors for the use of a practitioner for massage (p <.001), and alcohol status and physical activity were predictors for the use of a practitioner for massage and the use of relaxation techniques, yoga, tai chi, and qi gong (p <.001). Findings from this study provide new information on factors in the predisposing, enabling, need, and health behavior practices that influence the use safe and unsafe CAM therapies among a national sample of adults. Health educators, healthcare providers, and other health professionals need to be educated on the types of CAM modalities, and the associated risks and benefits so accurate information can be disseminated to target populations. Furthermore, education and/or training on the use of CAM in schools of nursing, nutrition, medicine, pharmacy, public health, and other allied health professions are needed so improvement in the disclosure of CAM can occur between patient and healthcare professionals.Item Development and validation of a self-efficacy theory-based instrument to measure breastfeeding self-efficacy and breastfeeding intention among pregnant women(University of Alabama Libraries, 2017) McKinley, Erin Marie; Knol, Linda L.; Turner, Lori W.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBreastfeeding is the feeding of a child with breast milk, either directly from the breast or by expression. Breastfeeding offers tremendous benefits to both the infant and mother. Individuals choose tasks they feel are within the boundaries of ability. The choice to engage in breastfeeding may be related to the level of self-efficacy a woman has to complete the task. Theoretical constructs have been operationalized to measure perceived self-efficacy for breastfeeding in pregnant populations; however, a guideline based, self-efficacy theory driven, valid, and reliable instrument is lacking. The purposes of this study were to create, test, and validate a new scale to measure prenatal breastfeeding self-efficacy, test the reliability of the scale, determine the correlation between prenatal breastfeeding self-efficacy and breastfeeding intention, and assess the differences in prenatal breastfeeding self-efficacy by the sociodemographic factors. One-hundred and twenty-four pregnant women, 18 years or older, participated in this cross-sectional study. All participants completed the survey and any interested participant took a second retest reliability survey home to complete and mail back to the researcher. Confirmatory factor analysis did not confirm the proposed model; therefore, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to examine the construct validity using maximum likelihood factor analysis with varimax rotation. This revealed a valid (α=.980) and reliable (r=0.920) four factor questionnaire for total prenatal breastfeeding self-efficacy – The Prenatal Rating of Efficacy in Preparation to Breastfeed (PREP to BF) Scale. Total PREP to BF score was significantly correlated to breastfeeding intention (r=.615; P<.001). Women who had at least some college education (P=.003), were currently married (P=.027), had breastfed previously (P=.035), and planned to deliver vaginally (P=.043) had significantly greater PREP to BF scores than their counterparts. Measuring the level of breastfeeding self-efficacy at the prenatal stage could alert prenatal women and health professionals to particular individual skill sets needed to successfully initiate breastfeeding after birth. A strong understanding of which pregnant women may or may not be at risk for non-initiation of breastfeeding may help healthcare professionals create and provide the most appropriate support to their patients.Item Development and validation of a social cognitive theory-based instrument to predict physical activity among people with spinal cord injury(University of Alabama Libraries, 2016) Wilroy, Jereme David; Turner, Lori W.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBackground: There are over 200,000 people with spinal cord injury in the U.S. alone and each year another 15,000 to 20,000 incidents occur. Massive trauma to the spine can result in a SCI leaving behind devastation to the body including paralyzed muscle and loss of sensation. People with SCI are more susceptible to sedentary lifestyles because of the displacement of physical functioning caused by the spinal cord injury and the overwhelming majority are physically inactive. Benefits of physical activity for people with SCI include physical fitness, functional capacity, social integration and psychological well-being. Theoretical constructs have been operationalized to measure social cognitions towards physical activity for this population; however a valid and reliable instrument is lacking. Purpose: Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop and validate a social cognitive theory-based instrument to predict physical activity among people with SCI. Methods: An instrument was drafted utilizing previous items from the literature. To examine content validity of the instrument, an expert panel of six people reviewed it, and the instrument was modified based on feedback. Cognitive interviewing with five people with SCI was conducted to assess readability, comprehensibility, and time. The final 64-item version of the instrument was used to collect data from participants via an online survey in order to test the validity and reliability. Results: One-hundred twenty-six people with SCI completed the survey with the majority being male (64.3%), white (79.4%), married (39.7%), with a mean age of 42.8 (± 13.7). The most prevalent level of SCI was complete paraplegia (34.9%) and the mean years from time since injury was 14.0 (±11.6). The physical activity outcome variable was significantly and positively correlated with self-regulatory efficacy (r = 0.575), task self-efficacy (r = 0.491), self-regulation (r = 0.432), social support (r= 0.284), and outcome expectations (r = 0.247). A prediction model for the physical activity outcome consisted of self-regulatory efficacy (B = 4.883; p < .001) and social support (B = 1.389; p = .050). Discussion: Multivariate analysis revealed that self-regulatory efficacy and social support were the strongest predictors of physical activity among people with SCI. Based on findings from the study, physical activity interventions targeted at people with spinal cord injury should focus on improving self-regulatory behaviors and providing social support to increase physical activity. A strategy for increasing self-regulatory efficacy within an intervention may involve the development of an action plan by each participant. The action planning would include setting goals and objectives, scheduling times for physical activity, and identifying barriers and a plan for coping with each barrier. Social support is the perceived support from others concerning the behavior and may include family, friends, or online communities. Targeting social support in an intervention may include peer modeling, peer support, health messages from participant doctor, and family involvement.Item Development and validation of a theory of planned behavior-based instrument to predict human papillomavirus vaccination intentions of college males at a southeastern university(University of Alabama Libraries, 2015) Priest, Hannah Marie; Birch, David A.; Knowlden, Adam P.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBackground. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most prevalent sexually transmitted infection in the United States. College-age males influence acquisition and transmission of HPV due to engagement in high-risk sexual behaviors. HPV vaccination is an efficacious strategy for reducing the burden of HPV-associated morbidity; yet rates of HPV vaccination remain low among college males. The purpose of this study was to operationalize the direct constructs of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict the HPV vaccination behavioral intentions of male undergraduate college students attending a large public southeastern university. Methods. A non-experimental, cross-sectional study design was employed with 256 vaccine-eligible college males. Instrumentation comprised a qualitative elicitation study, face and content validity by a panel of seven experts, readability and comprehensibility by pilot test, stability reliability by test-retest, internal consistency applying Cronbach’s alpha, construct validity applying confirmatory factor analysis, and predictive validity applying structural equation modeling. Results. Approximately one third (31.3%) of the sample was unaware of HPV and nearly half (45.3%) of the sample was unaware of the HPV vaccine. The final structural model exhibited acceptable fit of the data (Chi-square test = 129.78; degrees of freedom, df = 70, p = .000; Kline’s alternative, KA = 1.854; Goodness-of-fit index, GFI = 0.932; Normed fit index, NFI = .948; Root mean square error of approximation, RMSEA = 0.054). Attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm were significant predictors of behavioral intention, accounting for 58% of the variance in behavioral intention. Perceived behavioral control was found to be a non-significant predictor of behavioral intention. Overall, college males reported low behavioral intentions to get the vaccine (M = 8.52; SD = 5.30). Discussion. A valid and reliable instrument designed to measure constructs from the TPB was developed to predict HPV vaccination intentions of college males. Findings from this study provided an instrument that may be applied in the design and evaluation of TPB-based interventions to promote HPV vaccination among undergraduate college males. Future research may examine possible mediators and moderators of TPB constructs to fully operationalize the theoretical framework.Item Development and validation of a theory-based instrument to assess school organizational readiness to advance implementation of the whole school, whole community, whole child model(University of Alabama Libraries, 2018) Conrad, Eric Jordan; Birch, David A.; Knowlden, Adam P.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaBackground: The whole school, whole community, whole child (WSCC) model provides a framework for schools to support student health and academic achievement, however, implementation is a complex organizational change requiring the collective efforts of the school organization to be successful. Over half of all failed complex organizational change efforts, such as WSCC implementation, can be attributed to a lack of readiness. The ability to accurately assess school organizational readiness to implement the WSCC can improve preparation and processes necessary to promote successful and sustainable change. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a theory of organizational readiness for change (TORC)-based instrument to assess school organizational readiness to implement actions that support the WSCC model. Methods: A non-experimental, cross-sectional study design was employed with 271 public school employees from 43 schools. An instrument was drafted which operationalized readiness to implement the WSCC as eight actions supported in the literature to facilitate effective implementation. Instrumentation consisted of face and content validity by a panel of experts, stability reliability by test-retest, internal reliability applying Cronbach’s alpha, interrater agreement and reliability applying intraclass correlations and rwg(J) index, construct validity applying confirmatory factor analysis, and predictive validity applying multiple linear regression analysis. Results: Measures of interrater reliability and agreement supported the aggregation of individual-level readiness perceptions to the organization level of analysis for both general change commitment (GCC) (rwg(J).uniform=0.95, rwg(J).skew=0.79, ICC1=0.43, ICC2=0.91, p<.01) and general change efficacy (GCE) (rwg(J).uniform=0.95, rwg(J).skew=0.80, ICC1=0.49, ICC2=0.93, p<.01). The final structural model exhibited reasonable fit of the data (χ2=751.93, df=295, p<.001; GFI=0.833; AGFI=0.801; NFI=0.901; CFI=0.930; RMSEA=0.076). Both GCC (β=.589, p<.001) and GCE (β=.354, p<.001) were significant predictors of change-related effort, accounting for 77% of the variance. Overall, reported change-related effort was low (M=6.07; SD=2.70) with 74% of the scores below the scale midpoint. Discussion: A valid and reliable TORC-based instrument was developed to assess school organizational readiness to advance implementation of the WSCC model. Future research may seek to examine potential moderators and mediators of the TORC constructs in order to fully operationalize the theoretical framework.