Browsing by Author "Holmes, Clifton J."
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Item Accuracy of a Mobile 2D Imaging System for Body Volume and Subsequent Composition Estimates in a Three-Compartment Model(Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2021) Fedewa, Michael V.; Sullivan, Katherine; Hornikel, Bjoern; Holmes, Clifton J.; Metoyer, Casey J.; Esco, Michael R.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaPurpose The purpose of the study was to compare a single two-dimensional image processing system (IMAGE) to underwater weighing (UWW) for measuring body volume (BV) and subsequently estimating body fat percentage (%Fat), fat mass (FM), and fat-free mass (FFM) via a 3-compartment (3C) model. Methods A sample of participants age 18-39 yr was recruited for this study (n = 67, 47.8% female). BV was measured with UWW and predicted via the IMAGE software. The BV estimates from UWW (3C(UWW)) and IMAGE (3C(IMAGE)) were separately combined with constant total body water and body mass values for 3C model calculation of %Fat, FM, and FFM. Results BV obtained from the IMAGE was 67.76 +/- 12.19 and 67.72 +/- 12.04 L from UWW, which was not significantly different (P = 0.578) and very largely correlated (r = 0.99, P < 0.001). When converted to %Fat (3C(UWW) = 21.01% +/- 7.30%, 3C(IMAGE) = 21.08% +/- 7.04%, P = 0.775), FM (3C(UWW) = 14.68 +/- 5.15 kg, 3C(IMAGE) = 14.78 +/- 5.08 kg, P = 0.578), and FFM (3C(UWW) = 57.00 +/- 13.20 kg, 3C(IMAGE) = 56.90 +/- 12.84 kg, P = 0.578) with the 3C model, no significant mean differences and very large correlations (r values ranged from 0.96 to 0.99) were observed. In addition, the standard error of estimate, total error, and 95% limits of agreement for all three metrics were small and considered acceptable. Conclusions An IMAGE system provides valid estimates of BV that accurately estimates body composition in a 3C model.Item Agreement Between A 2-Dimensional Digital Image-Based 3-Compartment Body Composition Model and Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry for The Estimation of Relative Adiposity(Elsevier, 2022) Sullivan, Katherine; Metoyer, Casey J.; Hornikel, Bjoern; Holmes, Clifton J.; Nickerson, Brett S.; Esco, Michael R.; Fedewa, Michael, V; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; Washington University (WUSTL); Texas A&M International UniversityThe purpose of this study was to compare relative adiposity (%Fat) derived from a 2-dimensional image-based 3-component (3C) model (%Fat(3C-IMAGE)) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (%Fat(DXA)) against a 5-component (5C) laboratory criterion (%Fat(5C)). 57 participants were included (63.2% male, 84.2% White/Caucasian, 22.5 +/- 4.7 yrs., 23.9 +/- 2.8 kg/m(2)). For each participant, body mass and standing height were measured to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. A digital image of each participant was taken using a 9.7 inch, 16g iPad Air 2 and analyzed using a commercially available application (version 1.1.2, made Health and Fitness, USA) for the estimation of body volume (BV) and inclusion in %Fat(3C-IMAGE). %Fat(3C-IMAGE) and %Fat(5C) included measures of total body water derived from bioimpedance spectroscopy. The criterion %Fat(5C) included BV estimates derived from underwater weighing and bone mineral content measures via DXA. %Fat(DXA) estimates were calculated from a whole-body DXA scan. A standardized mean effect size (ES) assessed the magnitude of differences between models with values of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 for small, moderate, and large differences, respectively. Data are presented as mean +/- standard deviation. A strong correlation (r = 0.94, p <.001) and small mean difference (ES = 0.24, p <.001) was observed between %Fat(3C-IMAGE) (19.20 +/- 5.80) and %Fat(5C) (17.69 +/- 6.20) whereas a strong correlation (r = 0.87, p <.001) and moderate-large mean difference (ES = 0.70, p <.001) was observed between %Fat DXA (22.01 +/- 6.81) and %Fat(5C). Furthermore, %Fat(3C-IMAGE )(SEE = 2.20 %Fat, TE= 2.6) exhibited smaller SEE and TE than %Fat(DXA) (SEE = 3.14 %Fat, TE = 5.5). The 3C image-based model performed slightly better in our sample of young adults than the DXA 3C model. Thus, the 2D image analysis program provides an accurate and non-invasive estimate of %Fat within a 3C model in young adults. Compared to DXA, the 3C image-based model allows for a more cost-effective and portable method of body composition assessment, potentially increasing accessibility to multi-component methods.Item Associations between Multimodal Fitness Assessments and Rowing Ergometer Performance in Collegiate Female Athletes(MDPI, 2020) Holmes, Clifton J.; Hornikel, Bjoern; Sullivan, Katherine; Fedewa, Michael V.; Washington University (WUSTL); University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe purpose was to examine the association of critical power from a three-minute all-out row (CP3-min) and peak power from a one-stroke maximum test (1-Stroke) with laboratory-based fitness assessments (peak oxygen consumption [(V)over dotO(2peak)] and Wingate anaerobic test [WAnT]) and 6000 m (6K) and 2000 m (2K) rowing ergometer performance. Thirty-one female collegiate rowers (20.2 +/- 1.1 years, 70.9 +/- 6.9 kg, and 172.2 +/- 4.8 cm) participated in fitness and rowing performance testing. Pearson's correlations, linear regression, and Cohen's q were used to determine statistical relationships. Absolute (V)over dotO(2peak) values displayed significant correlations with 6K(total) (-0.68), 6K(split) (-0.68), 2K(total) (-0.64), and 2K(split) (-0.43). Relative (V)over dotO(2peak) displayed significant correlations with 6K(total) (-0.36), and 6K(split) (-0.37). CP3-min demonstrated significant correlations with 6K(total) (-0.62), 6K(split) (-0.62), 2K(total) (-0.61), and 2K(split) (-0.99). For 2K(split), a significant difference was observed between relative (V)over dotO(2peak) and CP3-min correlations with a "large" effect size (q = 2.367). Furthermore, 1-Stroke showed significant associations with 6K(total) (-0.63), 6K(split) (-0.63), 2K(total) (-0.62), and 2K(split) (-0.44), while WAnT produced non-significant correlations. Absolute (V)over dotO(2peak) CP3-min accounted for significant proportions of variance observed with performance measures (p < 0.05). Practitioners should consider incorporating CP3-min and 1-Stroke as additional tests for gauging rowing performance.Item Field-Based Performance Tests Are Related to Body Fat Percentage and Fat-Free Mass, But Not Body Mass Index, in Youth Soccer Players(MDPI, 2018) Esco, Michael R.; Fedewa, Michael, V; Cicone, Zackary S.; Sinelnikov, Oleg A.; Sekulic, Damir; Holmes, Clifton J.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of SplitThe primary aim of this study was to determine the association between body composition and performance outcomes in youth soccer players. Twenty-five competitive male youth soccer players (age = 13.7 +/- 0.8 years, height = 167.4 +/- 9.7 cm, weight = 57.6 +/- 12.1 kg) volunteered to participate in this study. Height and weight were used to calculate body mass index (BMI). Body fat percentage (BF%) and fat-free mass (FFM) were determined with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Each athlete performed the Pacer test, vertical jump, and t-test drill. Participants were predominantly normal weight (20.4 +/- 2.7 kg.m(-2)). The body composition results were 20.3 +/- 4.9% for BF% and 46.5 +/- 8.7 kg for FFM. The results of the performance tests indicated a mean standard deviation (SD) of 1418 +/- 332 m for Pacer, 57.2 +/- 7.4 cm for vertical jump, 11.6 +/- 0.7 s for t-test. Body mass index was not associated with any performance measure (r = 0.02 to -0.21, all p > 0.05). Body fat percentage was associated with the Pacer, vertical jump, and t-test (r = -0.62, -0.57, 0.61, respectively; all p < 0.01) and remained after accounting for BMI. Fat-free mass was only significantly related to t-test (r = -0.43, p < 0.01). However, after controlling for BMI, FFM was related to all three performance tests. Body fat percentage and FFM are associated with performance in youth soccer players, with stronger relationships reported in the former metric. The findings highlight the need for accurate body composition measurements as part of an assessment battery in young athletes.Item Generalized Equations for Predicting Percent Body Fat from Anthropometric Measures Using a Criterion Five-Compartment Model(Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2021) Cicone, Zackary S.; Nickerson, Brett S.; Choi, Youn-Jeng; Holmes, Clifton J.; Hornikel, Bjoern; Fedewa, Michael, V; Esco, Michael R.; Shenandoah University; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; Texas A&M International University; Ewha Womans University; Washington University (WUSTL)Introduction: Anthropometric-based equations are used to estimate percent body fat (%BF) when laboratory methods are impractical or not available. However, because these equations are often derived from two-compartment models, they are prone to error because of the assumptions regarding fat-freemass composition. The purpose of this study was to develop a new anthropometric-based equation for the prediction of%BF, using a five-compartment (5C) model as the criterion measure. Methods: A sample of healthy adults (52.2% female; age, 18 to 69 yr; body mass index, 15.7 to 49.5 kg.m(-2)) completed hydrostatic weighing, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, and bioimpedance spectroscopy measurements for calculation of 5C%BF (%BF5C), as well as skinfolds and circumferences.%BF5C was regressed on anthropometric measures using hierarchical variable selection in a random sample of subjects (n = 279). The resulting equation was cross-validated in the remaining participants (n = 78). New model performance was also comparedwith several common anthropometric-based equations. Results: The new equation [%BFNew = 6.083 + (0.143 x SSnew) - (12.058 x sex) - (0.150 x age) - (0.233 x body mass index) + (0.256 x waist) + (0.162 x sex x age)] explained a significant proportion of variance in %BF5C (R-2 = 0.775, SEE = 4.0%). Predictors included sum of skinfolds (SSnew, midaxillary, triceps, and thigh) and waist circumference. The new equation cross-validated well against %BF5C when compared with other existing equations, producing a large intraclass correlation coefficient (0.90), small mean bias and limits of agreement (0.4% +/- 8.6%), and small measures of error (SEE = 2.5%). Conclusions: %BFNew improved on previous anthropometric-based equations, providing better overall agreement and less error in %BF estimation. The equation described in this study may provide an accurate estimate of %BF5C in healthy adults when measurement is not practical.Item Heart Rate Variability and Stress Recovery Responses during a Training Camp in Elite Young Canoe Sprint Athletes(MDPI, 2019) Coelho, Andre B.; Nakamura, Fabio Y.; Morgado, Micaela C.; Holmes, Clifton J.; Di Baldassarre, Angela; Esco, Michael R.; Rama, Luis M.; Universidade de Coimbra; G d'Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara; James Cook University; Universidade do Porto; University of Alabama TuscaloosaTraining camps are typical in elite Canoeing preparation, during which, the care to assure adaptation to avoid undesired fatigue is not always present. This study aimed identifying a specific sex response in perceived training loads, recovery and stress balance, and cardiac autonomic responses. Twenty-one elite athletes (11 males and 10 females) of the Portuguese Canoeing National team participated in the investigation. The daily HRV (lnRMSSD) was monitored. The (RESTQ-52) questionnaire was used to access the recovery and stress state. The 10-day training camp was composed of two consecutive 5-day periods (P1 and P2). Data analyses were performed using confidence limits, effect size, and magnitude-based inference. In the females, Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), lnRMSSD, and its coefficient of variation did not change between P1 and P2. However, in males, lnRMSSD showed a small reduction from P1 to P2. Also, sRPE was higher in males over the training period, with a possibly small difference at P2. Regarding RESTQ-52, total stress most likely increased with large and very large differences in males and moderate differences in females during the training period. Male canoeists undertook higher perceived training loads than females, with a consequent higher level of total perceived stress and lnRMSSD during a 10-day training camp.Item Heart Rate Variability Responses to an Undulating Resistance Training Program in Free-Living Conditions: A Case Study in a Collegiate Athlete(MDPI, 2018) Holmes, Clifton J.; Wind, Stefanie A.; Esco, Michael R.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe purpose of this case study was to evaluate the response in heart rate variability via the parasympathetically-mediated metric of the log-transformed root mean square of successive R-R interval differences (lnRMSSD) to weekly variations in total volume-load (TVL) during an 18-week periodized strength training program in a competitive collegiate hockey athlete. The program consisted of three 60-90 min full-body exercise sessions per week with at least 24-h of rest between each session. Daily lnRMSSD measurements were taken immediately after waking using a validated smartphone application and the pulse-wave finger sensor. The weekly lnRMSSD values were calculated as the mean (lnRMSSD(MEAN)) and the coefficient of variation (lnRMSSD(CV)). A Pearson's bivariate correlation of lnRMSSD(MEAN) and TVL revealed no statistically significant correlation between the two variables; TVL (r = -0.105, p = 0.678). However, significant correlations were found between 1nRMSSD(CV) and both total load (TL) (r = -0.591, p = 0.013) and total volume (TV) (r = 0.765, p < 0.001). Additionally, weekly ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) mean values were statistically significantly correlated to TVL, r = 0.853, p < 0.001. It was concluded that lnRMSSD(CV) increased or decreased proportionally to an increase or decrease in TVL during the periodized resistance training program with TV being the strongest, independent indicator of these changes.Item Heart-Rate Variability Recording Time and Performance in Collegiate Female Rowers(Human Kinetics, 2021) Sherman, Sara R.; Holmes, Clifton J.; Hornikel, Bjoern; MacDonald, Hayley, V; Fedewa, Michael, V; Esco, Michael R.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Illinois Chicago; University of Illinois Chicago HospitalPurpose: To assess the agreement of the root mean square of successive R-R interval (RMSSD) values when recorded immediately upon waking to values recorded later in the morning prior to practice, and to determine the associations of the RMSSD recordings with performance outcomes in female rowers. Methods: A total of 31 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I rowers were monitored for 6 consecutive days. Two seated RMSSD measurements were obtained on at least 3 mornings using a smartphone-based photoplethysmography application. Each 1-minute RMSSD measure was recorded following a 1-minute stabilization period. The first (T1) measurement occurred at the athlete's home following waking, while the second (T2) transpired upon arrival at the team's boathouse immediately before practice. From the measures, the RMSSD mean and coefficient of variation were calculated. Two objective performance assessments were conducted on an indoor rowing ergometer on separate days: 2000-m time trial and distance covered in 30 minutes. Interteam rank was determined by the coaches, based on subjective and objective performance markers. Results: The RMSSD mean (intraclass correlation coefficient = .82; 95% CI,.63 to .92) and RMSSD coefficient of variation (intraclass correlation coefficient = .75; 95% CI,.48 to .88) were strongly correlated at T1 and T2, P < .001. The RMSSD mean at T1 and T2 was moderately associated with athlete rank (r = -.55 and r = -.46, respectively), 30-minute distance (r = .40 and r = .41, respectively), and 2000 m at T1 (r = -.37), P < .05. No significant correlations were observed for the RMSSD coefficient of variation. Conclusion: Ultrashort RMSSD measurements taken immediately upon waking show very strong agreement with those taken later in the morning, at the practice facility. Future research should more thoroughly investigate the relationship between specific performance indices and the RMSSD mean and coefficient of variation for female collegiate rowers.Item Utilizing a Novel 2D Image Processing System for Relating Body Composition Metrics to Performance in Collegiate Female Rowers(MDPI, 2021) Esco, Michael R.; Holmes, Clifton J.; Sullivan, Katherine; Hornikel, Bjoern; Fedewa, Michael V.; University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe purpose of this study was to determine if rowing performance was associated with fat mass (FM) or fat-free mass (FFM) measured using a novel 2D digital image analysis system. Nineteen female rowers (ages = 20.3 +/- 1.0 years, weight = 73.8 +/- 8.3 kg, height = 172.7 +/- 4.7 cm) participated in this study. FM and FFM were estimated with a smartphone application that uses an automated 2D image analysis program. Rowing performance was measured using a 2 km (2k) timed trial on an indoor ergometer. The average speed of the timed trial was recorded in raw units (m center dot s(-1)) and adjusted for body weight (m center dot s(-1)center dot kg(-1)). FFM was significantly correlated to unadjusted 2k speed (r = 0.67, p < 0.05), but not for FM (r = 0.44, p > 0.05). When 2k speed was adjusted to account for body weight, significant correlations were found with FM (r = -0.56, p < 0.05), but not FFM (r = -0.34, p > 0.05). These data indicate that both FM and FFM are related to rowing performance in female athletes, but the significance of the relationships is dependent on overall body mass. In addition, the novel 2D imaging system appears to be a suitable field technique when relating body composition to rowing performance.Item Vagally Derived Heart Rate Variability and Training Perturbations With Menses in Female Collegiate Rowers(Human Kinetics, 2022) Sherman, Sara R.; Holmes, Clifton J.; Demos, Alexander P.; Stone, Tori; Hornikel, Bjoern; MacDonald, Hayley, V; Fedewa, Michael, V; Esco, Michael R.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; University of Illinois Chicago; University of Illinois Chicago Hospital; Washington University (WUSTL); Yale UniversityIntroduction: The parasympathetically derived marker of heart rate variability, root mean square of successive R-R differences (RMSSD), and the daily fluctuations as measured by the coefficient of variation (RMSSDCV) may be useful for tracking training adaptations in athletic populations. These vagally derived markers of heart rate variability may be especially pertinent when simultaneously considering a female athlete's menstrual cycle. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to observe the perturbations in RMSSDcv, while considering RMSSD, across a season in the presence and absence of menses with training load in female collegiate rowers. Methods: Thirty-six (20 [1] y, 25.6 [3.4] kg.m(-2)) National Collegiate Athletic Association Division female rowers were monitored for 18 consecutive weeks across a full season. Seated, ultrashortened RMSSD measurements were obtained by the rowers on at least 3 mornings per week using a smartphone photoplethysmography device. Following the RMSSD measurement, athletes indicated the presence or absence of menstruation within the application. Individual meters rowed that week and sessions rate of perceived exertion were obtained to quantify training load. Results: Longitudinal mixedeffects modeling demonstrated a significant effect of menses and time, while also considering RMSSD, such that those who were on their period had a significantly greater RMSSDcv than those who were not (11.2% vs 7.5%, respectively; P < .001). These changes were independent of meters rowed, sessions rate of perceived exertion, body mass index, birth-control use, and years of rowing experience, which were all nonsignificant predictors of RMSSDCgV (P > .05). Conclusion: The presence of menses appears to significantly impact RMSSDCV when also considering RMSSD, which may allow coaches to consider individualized training plans accordingly.Item Validity of a 3-compartment body composition model using body volume derived from a novel 2-dimensional image analysis program(Springer Nature, 2022) Sullivan, Katherine; Hornikel, Bjoern; Holmes, Clifton J.; Esco, Michael R.; Fedewa, Michael V.; University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; Washington University (WUSTL)Background/Objectives The purpose of this study was: (1) to compare body volume (BV) estimated from a 2-dimensional (2D) image analysis program (BVIMAGE), and a dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) equation (BVDXA-Smith-Ryan) to an underwater weighing (UWW) criterion (BVUWW); (2) to compare relative adiposity (%Fat) derived from a 3-compartment (3C) model using BVIMAGE (%Fat(3C-IMAGE)), and a 4-compartment (4C) model using BVDXA-Smith-Ryan (%Fat(4C-DXA-Smith-Ryan)) to a 4C criterion model using BVUWW (%Fat(4C-UWW)). Subject/Methods Forty-eight participants were included (60% male, 22.9 +/- 5.0 years, 24.2 +/- 2.6 kg/m(2)). BVIMAGE was derived using a single digital image of each participant taken from the rear/posterior view. DXA-derived BV was calculated according to Smith-Ryan et al. Bioimpedance spectroscopy and DXA were used to measure total body water and bone mineral content, respectively, in the 3C and 4C models. A standardized mean effect size (ES) assessed the magnitude of differences between models with values of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 for small, moderate, and large differences, respectively. Data are presented as mean +/- standard deviation. Results Near-perfect correlation (r = 0.998, p < 0.001) and no mean differences (p = 0.267) were observed between BVIMAGE (69.6 +/- 11.5 L) and BVUWW (69.5 +/- 11.4 L). No mean differences were observed between %Fat(4C-DXA-Smith-Ryan) and the %Fat(4C-UWW) criterion (p = 0.988). Small mean differences were observed between %Fat(3C-IMAGE) and %Fat(4C-UWW) (ES = 0.2, p < 0.001). %Fat(3C-IMAGE) exhibited smaller SEE and TE, and tighter limits of agreement than %Fat(4C-DXA-Smith-Ryan). Conclusions The 2D image analysis program provided an accurate and non-invasive estimate of BV, and subsequently %Fat within a 3C model in generally healthy, young adults.Item Validity of Smartphone Heart Rate Variability Pre- and Post-Resistance Exercise(MDPI, 2020) Holmes, Clifton J.; Fedewa, Michael V.; Winchester, Lee J.; MacDonald, Hayley V.; Wind, Stefanie A.; Esco, Michael R.; Washington University (WUSTL); University of Alabama TuscaloosaThe aim was to examine the validity of heart rate variability (HRV) measurements from photoplethysmography (PPG) via a smartphone application pre- and post-resistance exercise (RE) and to examine the intraday and interday reliability of the smartphone PPG method. Thirty-one adults underwent two simultaneous ultrashort-term electrocardiograph (ECG) and PPG measurements followed by 1-repetition maximum testing for back squats, bench presses, and bent-over rows. The participants then performed RE, where simultaneous ultrashort-term ECG and PPG measurements were taken: two pre- and one post-exercise. The natural logarithm of the root mean square of successive normal-to-normal (R-R) differences (LnRMSSD) values were compared with paired-sample t-tests, Pearson product correlations, Cohen's d effect sizes (ESs), and Bland-Altman analysis. Intra-class correlations (ICC) were determined between PPG LnRMSSDs. Significant, small-moderate differences were found for all measurements between ECG and PPG: Base(Pre1) (ES = 0.42), Base(Pre2) (0.30), REPre1 (0.26), REPre2 (0.36), and REPost (1.14). The correlations ranged from moderate to very large: Base(Pre1) (r = 0.59), Base(Pre2) (r = 0.63), REPre1 (r = 0.63), REPre2 (r = 0.76), and REPost (r = 0.41)-all p < 0.05. The agreement for all the measurements was "moderate" (0.10-0.16). The PPG LnRMSSD exhibited "nearly-perfect" intraday reliability (ICC = 0.91) and "very large" interday reliability (0.88). The smartphone PPG was comparable to the ECG for measuring HRV at rest, but with larger error after resistance exercise.